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Cotton  and  Cotton  Oil. 


COTTON. 

Planting,  Cultivating,  Harvesting  and  Preparation  for  Market. 

COTTON  SEED  OIL  MILLS. 

Organization,  Construction  and  Operation. 

CATTLE  FEEDING. 

Production   of    Beef    and   Dairy  Products.     Cotton   Seed   Meal   and 
Hulls  as  Stock  Feed. 

FERTILIZERS. 

Manufacture,  Manipulation  and  Uses. 


FULL   INFORMATION    FOR    INVESTOR,  STUDENT   AND 
PRACTICAL   MECHANIC. 


PROFUSELY    ILLUSTRATED   WITH    ORIGINAL    DRAWINGS. 


By  D.  A.  TOMPKINS, 


Cotton  Mill  Processes  and  Calculations;   Cotton  Mill  Commercial  Features: 
American  Commerce,  Its  Expansion;  Cotton  Values  in  Textile  Fabrics. 


CHARLOTTE,  N.  C: 
Published  by  the  Author. 
1901. 


Copyright  1901 

BY 

D.  A.  Tompkins. 


Presses  Observer  Printing  House, 
Charlotte,  N.   C. 


preface. 


I  was  born  on  a  cotton  plantation  in  South  Carolina  in 
1852,  and  lived  on  it  continuously  until  1867.  In  subse- 
quent years  I  was  from  time  to  time  on  the  plantation,  and 
thus  have  been  in  good  contact  with  cotton  planting  before, 
during  and  after  the  Civil  War. 

I  was  educated  and  trained  as  an  engineer.  In  the  pur- 
suit of  my  profession,  I  have  designed  and  had  charge  of 
the  construction  of  many  cotton  mills,  cotton  seed  oil  mills, 
and  fertilizer  works. 

This  volume,  Cotton  and  Cotton  Oil,  is  based  on  the 
experience  acquired  on  the  plantation  and  in  the  exe- 
cution of  these  various  engineering  and  industrial  works. 
The  matter  is  put  in  book  form  as  the  best  means  of  keep- 
ing together  the  valuable  results  of  the  work,  and  for  what 
value  the  records  may  be  to  the  present  and  succeeding 
generations,  who  may  be  interested  in  these  subjects. 

D.  A.  Tompkins. 
Charlotte,  N.  C,  July  15,  1901. 


13787 


Contents. 


CHAPTER  I. 
INTRODUCTORY.— 

Origin  of  cotton  planting  in  United  States.  History 
previous  to  invention  of  saw  gin.  Influence  of  roller 
gin.  Influence  of  saw  gin.  Table  showing  production 
and  price  from  1790  to  1900.  Mutual  influence  cot- 
ton planting  and  slavery.  The  Civil  War.  Cotton 
planting  with  free  labor.     Present  magnitude. 

PART  1.  COTTON. 

CHAPTER  II. 

INVENTION  OF  THE  SAW  GIN.— 

First  step :  Wooden  cylinder  with  spikes,  by  Eli 
Whitney.  Second  step :  Saw  gin,  by  Hodgen 
Holmes.  Certified  copies  of  patents.  Georgia  suits 
for  infringement  of  patent  right.  Royalties  paid 
Whitney  by  Southern  States. 

CHAPTER  III. 

PREPARATION  OF  COTTON  FOR  THE  MARKET 
WITH  SLAVE  LABOR.— 

Early  gins.  Early  gin  houses  with  horse  power.  The 
wooden  screw  press.  Improved  methods  and  ma- 
chines.    Hauling. bales  of  cotton  25  miles  to  market. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
THE  PLANTATION  BEFORE  THE  CIVIL  WAR.— 

General  organization  of  plantation.  Home  products 
and  economy.  Amusements  on  the  plantation.  Com- 
bination of  work  and  play.  The  master.  The  over- 
seer. The  slave.  Plantation  during  the  war.  Loyalty 
of  the  slave  to  the  master  and  master  to  slave. 

CHAPTER  V. 

PREPARATION  OF  COTTON  FOR  THE  MARKET 
AS  MODIFIED  BY  THE  ABOLITION  OF  SLAV- 
ERY.— 

White  man  meets  new  conditions  and  adapts  himself. 
Improved  machinery.  Labor  saving  inventions.  In- 
creased production. 

CHAPTER  VI. 
MODERN  COTTON  GIN,  PRESS  AND  GINNERY.— 

History  of  improvements  on  gin.  Evolution  of  the 
gin  house.  Intermediate  stages.  Present  types. 
Round  bale.     Compresses. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND  HARVESTING 
COTTON.— 

Preparation  of  ground  Time  to  plant.  Chopping  out. 
Plowing.  Fertilizing.  Implements  of  culture. 
Insect  enemies.     Picking  and  harvesting. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

MARKETING  COTTON.— 

Ante-bellum  factor  methods.  Post-bellum  methods. 
Middle  men.     Exporting. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  PLANTATION,   DURING  AND  AFTER  THE 
CIVIL  WAR.— 

With  slave  labor.  With  emancipated  negro  labor. 
Methods  of  paying  laborers.  Renters,  tenants,  crop- 
pers, day  wages.  Influence  of  cotton  factories.  Influ- 
ence of  cotton  oil  mills.  Neighboring  manufacturing 
enterprises  make  farming  more  attractive.  Farm 
lands  increasing  in  value. 

PART  II.  COTTON  OIL. 

CHAPTER  X. 

COTTON  SEED.— 

Constituent  elements,  oil,  meal,  lint,  hulls.  Micro- 
scopic study  of  seed.  Varieties  and  their  relative 
values  to  oil  mills. 

CHAPTER  XI. 
COTTON  SEED  OIL,  COMMERCIAL  FEATURES.— 

History  of  oil  milling.  Purchasing  seed.  Uses  made 
of  various  products.  Value  of  products.  Markets 
for  products.  Packages  for  products.  Table  show- 
ing quantities  and  values  of  products  for  30  years. 


Vlll. 

CHAPTER  XII. 

COTTOX    SEED   OIL,    MECHANICAL   FEATURES 
AXD  PROCESSES.— 

Detailed  description  of  each  machine  and  its  opera- 
tions. Table  showing  speed  and  power  for  each  ma- 
chine. Quality  of  raw  material  and  its  relation  to  fin- 
ished products.  Mill  building's.  How  to  reduce  fire 
risks  by  proper  construction. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
COTTON  SEED  OIL  REFINING.— 

Chemical  considerations.  Mechanical  considerations. 
Old  methods.  Present  practice.  Variety  of  finished 
products.  By  products.  Suitable  buildings.  Storage 
tanks. 

PART  III.  CORRELATED  INDUSTRIES. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

CATTLE  FEEDING.— 

Early  experiments.  Government  investigations. 
Growth  in  the  Southwest.  Introduction  into  the  South- 
east. Varieties  of  cattle  for  feeding.  Markets  for 
fatted  cattle.     Transportation  of  cattle.     By  products. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
FERTILIZERS.— 

Composition  and  uses.  Manipulating  and  mixing  on 
the  farm.  Raw  materials.  Manipulating  and  mixing 
at  small  oil  mills.  Cotton  seed  meal  as  a  raw  material. 
Experiment  station  work. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

FERTILIZER  MANUFACTURE.— 

Chemical  considerations.  Mechanical  considerations. 
Machinery.  Raw  materials.  Phosphate  rock.  Pebble 
phosphate.  Sulphuric  acid  in  its  relation  to  fertili- 
zers.    Manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid. 

APPENDIX. 

DOCUMENTS    RELATING"  TO    INVENTION    OF 
COTTON  GIN.     TABLES  AND  MISCELLANY.— 

Verbatim  court  records  in  cotton  gin  cases.  Theory  of 
cattle  feeding.      Sundry  notes  on  cattle  feeding. 


Xist  of  Illustrations. 


i — Whitney's  Original  Model  of  Gin. 

2 — Madison's     Certification    of     Original     Gin     Patent 

Sheets. 
3 — Whitney's  Original  Certified  Patent  Drawing. 
4 — Drawing    Accompanying    the    Whitney    Substituted 

Patent. 
5 — Drawing    Accompanying    the    Whitney    Substituted 

Patent. 
6 — Certification  of  Whitney  Patents. 
7 — Certification  of  Bill  of  Injunction  in  Patent  Suits. 
8 — Certification  of  Holmes  Gin  Patent. 
9 — Eli  Whitney's  Autograph, 
io — Whitney's  Spike  Gin.  Intermittent  Action. 
ii — Holmes'  Saw  Gin.  Continuous  Action. 
12 — Old  Plantation  Gin  House  and  Screw. 
13 — Old  Horse  Power  for  Gin  House. 
14 — Hauling  Cotton  to  Market. 
15 — Steam  Power  Applied  to  Old  Gin  House. 
16 — Early  Steam  Ginnery. 
The*  Plantation  Home. 
17 — Spinning  Wheel. 
18 — 'Portable  Ginnery. 
19 — Improved  Ginnery. 
20 — Roller  Gin. 
21 — Section  of  Saw  Gin. 
22 — Perspective  of  Saw  Gin. 
23 — Huller  Gin. 
24 — Gin  Driven  from  Below. 
25 — Improved  Ginnery. 
26 — Ginnery  with  Suction  Apparatus. 
27 — Ginnery  with  Storage  Bins. 
28 — Texas  Ginnery. 
29 — Old  Gin  House  and  Screw. 


30 — Modern  Screw  Cotton  Press. 

31 — Steam  Cotton  Press. 

32 — Cotton  Compress  with  Knuckle  Joints. 

2,^ — Ginnery  Compress,  Square  Bale. 

34 — Ginnery  Compress,  Cylindrical  Lap  Bale. 

35 — Ginnery  Compress,  End  Packed  Cylindrical  Bale. 

36 — Ginnery  Compress,  End  Packed  Cylindrical  Bale. 

37 — Ginnery  Compress,  End  Packed  Cylindrical  Bale. 

38 — Ginnery  Compress,  End  Packed  Cylindrical  Bale. 

39 — Three  Kinds  of  Cotton  Bales. 

40 — Cotton  "Square"  and  Cotton  Bloom. 

41 — Cotton  Bolls. 

42 — Cotton  Bolls. 

43 — Xegro  and  Plow. 

44 — Sundry  Plow  Points. 

45 — Sundry  Plow  Points. 

46 — Plow  and  Hoe. 

47 — Fertilizer  Distributor  and  Guano  Horn. 

48 — Cotton  Planting  Machine. 

49 — Sub-soiling-  Plow. 

50 — Gang  Plow  for  Cultivating  Cotton. 

51 — Sulky  Plow  for  Cultivating  Cotton. 

52 — Disc  Cultivator  for  Cotton. 

53 — Cotton  Stalk  Cutter. 

54 — Cotton  Field  at  the  End  of  the  Day. 

55 — Method  of  Picking  Cotton. 

56 — Experimental  Cotton  Picking  Machine;  Rear  View. 

57 — Experimental  Cotton  Picking  Machine;  Front  View. 

58— Cotton  Market. 

59 — Cotton  Sampler's  Table. 

60 — Cotton  Planting  Syndicate — Planter,  Negro,  Mule. 

61 — Cotton  Seed,  Showing  How  Lint  Grows. 

62 — Cross  Section  of  Cotton  Seed  Magnified  12^  times. 

63— General  View  150-Ton  Oil  Mill,' 1885. 

64 — Arrangement  of  Machinery,  150-Ton  Oil  Mill,  1885. 

65— General  View  200-Ton  Oil  Mill,  1887. 

66 — General  View  100-Ton  Oil  Mill.  1890. 


6/ — Arrangement  of  Machinery,  40-Ton  Oil  Mill,   1901. 

68 — Right  and  Left  Hand  Conveyors. 

69 — Wooden  Boxes  for  Conveyors. 

70 — Right  Angle  Conveyor  Drive. 

71 — Sprocket  Chain  Elevators. 

72 — Sand  and  Boll  Screen. 

jt> — End  Section  Sand  and  Boll  Screen. 

74 — Section  Through  Cotton  Seed  Linter. 

75 — General  View  Cotton  Seed  Linter. 

76 — Linter  Room  in  Oil  Mill. 

■yj — Cotton  Seed  Huller. 

78 — Section  Through  Huller. 

79 — Cotton  Seed  Huller. 

80 — Section  Through  Huller. 

81 — Huller  Feeder. 

82 — Separating  Conveyor. 

83 — Diagram  Serpentine  Drive  for  Rolls. 

84 — Five-High  Serpentine  Rolls. 

85 — Diagram  Tandem  Drive  for  Four-High  Rolls. 

86 — Diagram  Tandem  Drive  for  Five-High  Rolls. 

87 — Four-High  Tandem  Rolls. 

88 — Diagram  Tandem  Drive  with  Tightener,  Five-High 

Rolls. 
89— Five-High  Geared  Rolls. 
90 — Heaters   with   Gang  Under   Drive. 
91 — Heaters  with  Independent  Parallel  Under  Drive. 
92 — Heaters  with  Overhead  Drive. 
93 — Presses,  Former  and  Heaters  with  Independent  Right 

Angle  Drive. 
94 — Triple  Heaters. 
95 — Section  Through  Triple  Heaters. 
96 — Steam  Cake  Former. 
97 — Interior  of  Oil  Mill  Press  Room. 
98 — Interior  of  Oil  Mill  Press  Room. 
99 — Oil  Press,  Showing  Valves. 
100 — Oil  Press  in  Section. 
1 01 — Oil  Press,  Showing  Hydraulic  Packing. 


102— Mold  for  Making  Hydraulic  Packing. 

103 — Hydraulic  Steam  Pump. 

104 — Hydraulic  Accumulators. 

105 — Hydraulic  Press  Valve. 

106 — Old  Style  Automatic  Change  Valve. 

107 — New  Style  Automatic  Change  Valve. 

108 — Pump  and  Press  Connections. 

109 — Hydraulic  Power  Pump. 

no — Cake  Cracker. 

1 1 1— Attrition  Meal  Mill. 

112— General  View  of  Cotton  Oil  Refinery. 

113 — Plan  and  Section  Cotton  Oil  Refinery. 

114 — Cotton  Oil  Filter  Press. 

115 — Interior  Cattle  Shed. 

116 — Exterior  of  Cattle  Shed. 

1 1 7 — Feeding  Cattle  in  the  Open. 

118 — Type  of  Good  Beef  Steer. 

119 — Type  of  Scrub  Beef  Steer. 

120 — Type  of  Good  Milk  Cow. 

121 — Type  of  Good  Butter  Cow. 

122 — Type  of  Scrub  Cow. 

123 — Cycle  of  Production,  Consumption  and  Land  Resto- 
ration. 

124 — Fertilizer  Mixer. 

125 — General  View  Sulphuric  Acid  Chamber. 

126 — Plan  and  Section  Sulphuric  Acid  Chamber. 

127 — Section  Fertilizer  Factory. 

Two  Colored  Plates,  Showing  Different  Types  of  Negroes. 

Three    Colored     Plates,     Showing     Different     Stages     of 

Growth  of  Cotton  Plant. 
Map  Showing  Quarantine  Line  for  Texas  or  Splenetic  Fe- 
ver in  Cattle. 


CHAPTER  I. 

flntrofcuction. 

For  the  ancient  history  of  cotton,  dating  1,000  years 
before  Christ,  the  practical  man  of  to-day  cares  very  little. 
Even  the  minor  details  of  its  introduction  into  the  United 
States  possesses  only  historical  interest  and  this  will  be 
taken  up  only  to  illustrate  the  evolution  of  the  industry. 

The  early  colonists  naturally  experimented  on  their  new- 
found soil  with  all  of  the  divers  seeds  that  they  could  ob- 
tain from  all  parts  of  the  earth.  Thus,  cotton  became  an 
early  experimental  crop,  beginning  in  Virginia  about  the 
year  iooo,  and  continuing  in  all  of  the  Southern  latitudes 
f<  ;r  nearly  two  hundred  years  before  it  came  to  be  seriously 
regarded  as  a  useful  crop. 

During  this  epoch  a  great  army  oi  hand  weavers  had 
sprung  up  in  England,  and  it  was  becoming  a  serious 
problem  with  them  to  get  yarn  to  weave. 

In  all  times  and  places,  when  there  is  a  serious  demand 
for  any  invention,  the  genius  of  the  age  soon  develops  and 
perfects  that  invention.  In  1767  James  Hargreaves  in- 
vented in  England  the  spinning  jenny,  by  which  one  op- 
erative could  run  as  many  as  twenty  spindles,  instead  of 
one,  as  theretofore.  This  was  successively  improved  by 
Arkwright  and  Crompton  in  England  and  others,  so  that 
it  soon  became  an  easy  matter  to  provide  yarn  for  the 
hand  weavers.  After  the  power  loom  had  been  intro- 
duced by  Cartwright  also  in  England  in  1785,  the  world's 
consumption  of  all  kinds  of  yarn  became  immensely  in- 
creased, and  thus  the  demand  for  raw  textile  fibres  was  a 
constantly  growing  one. 

The  American  colonists  took  a  growing  interest  in  cot- 
ton production,  and  made  every  effort  to  meet  the  de- 
mand from  the  mother  country,  and  also  the  new  demands 
•of  the  new  independent  colonies. 

D.   h.   HILL  LIBRARY 

Nor.!-  '    -ge 


2  INTRODUCTION. 

In  1786  Governor  Tattnal,  of  Georgia,  received  some 
Sea  Island  seed  from  the  Bahama  Islands,  and  encouraged 
its  production  in  the  coast  region. 

About  the  same  time,  a  .\lrs.  Burden,  of  South  Caro- 
lina, promoted  its  growth  on  the  sea  islands  of  that  State. 

Several  difficulties  prevented  the  rapid  spread  of  cotton 
culture  in  those  days.  Scarcity  of  labor  in  the  new  coun- 
try, for  the  tedious  process  of  harvesting  or  "picking- 
was  an  important  factor;  but  the  prime  difficulty  was  in 
separating  the  useful  lint  from  the  then  useless  seed. 
This  work  was  done  entirely  by  hand  until  the  ancient 
roller  gin  was  brought  over. 

A.  Air.  Dubreuil,  of  Louisiana,  is  said  to  have  had  one 
of  the  first  gins  of  any  kind  in  America.  A  more  practical 
machine  seems  to  have  been  introduced  from  the  Bahama 
Islands  by  Dr.  Joseph  Eve,  of  Augusta,  Ga.,  about  the 
same  time  (1790).  He  is  reported  to  have  been  the  first 
to  run  a  gin  by  power. 

As  the  colonists  gradually  found  their  way  inland,  the 
character  of  the  cotton  which  they  continued  to  plant, 
changed  from  the  Sea  Island  varieties,  and  began  to  de- 
velop a  well  marked  type  known  as  "upland."  The  seeds  of 
upland  cotton  were  even  more  difficult  to  separate  than  the 
other  varieties,  so  that,  although  plantation  labor  began 
to  be  more  plentiful  by  the  importation  of  slaves,  the 
growth  of  cotton  could  not  become  an  extensive  industry 
until  a  machine  could  be  perfected  for  the  separation  of 
the  seeds. 

As  in  the  invention  of  other  machinery,  a  crying  neces- 
sity stimulated  inventive  genius.  The  roller  gin  was  al- 
ready in  use,  and  worked  well  for  Sea  Island  cotton.  In 
1793,  Eli  Whitney,  then  living  near  Savannah,  Ga.,  in 
vented  a  cotton  gin,  comprising  many  of  the  features  of 
the  gin  now  in  use  for  upland  cotton.  In  1794  he  ob- 
tained his  patent.  In  1795  Hodgen  Holmes,  of  Augusta, 
<  ia..  invented  the  saw  gin,  an  improvement  on  Whitney's 
machine.     In  1706  he  obtained  his  patent.     Thus  in  the 


INTRODUCTION.  3 

period  from  1793  to  1796,  the  saw  gin  became  a  standard 
machine,  and  an  epoch  maker  in  the  history  of  cotton. 

The  first  power  saw  gin,  which  is  to  say  the  first  real 
practical  and  productive  gin  in  the  world  was  made  by 
Hodgen  Holmes  and  was  run  by  water  power  in  Fairfield 
comity.  South  Carolina,  by  Mr.  James  Kincaid  in  1795. 

The  details  of  the  invention  of  the  saw  gin  are  fully  set 
forth  in  another  chapter. 

The  effect  of  this  invention  upon  the  cotton  production 
of  the  country  was  wonderful.  As  soon  as  a  few  of  these 
machines  could  be  made  and  put  upon  the  market,  it  was 
seen  that  with  the  available  labor  it  was  easy  to  increase 
the  cotton  production  many  fold. 

In  1790  the  production  of  cotton  was  equivalent  to 
3,000  bales  of  500  pounds  each,  and  in  1798,  about  the 
time  the  use  of  saw  gins  became  general,  the  production 
was  increased  to  an  equivalent  of  about  30,000  bales  of 
500  pounds  each.  At  this  time  cotton  was  put  up  in  bales 
or  bags  weighing  about  225  pounds  each.  For  the  pur- 
pose of  comparison,  all  statistics  in  this  book  have  been 
reduced  t<  1  <  >ur  present  average  bale  of  500  pounds  gross. 

It  soon  became  apparent  that  the  productiveness  of  the 
soil  would  justify  much  more  cotton  planting  than  the 
available  labor  could  handle,  even  wirh  the  help  of  the  cot- 
ton gin.  This  idea  fostered  a  great  importation  of  negro 
slaves,  and  thus  the  growth  of  slavery  and  the  increase  of 
the  cotton  crop  were  simultaneous,  each  being  sustained 
by  the  other.  This  material  result  was  in  opposition  to  a 
strong  sentiment  against  slavery-. 

The  cotton  crops  steadily  increased  on  this  basis,  build- 
ing up  and  enriching  an  agricultural  population  which  be 
came  an  aristocracy  in  the  Southern  United  States.  The 
cotton  crop  had  grown  to  4,000,000  bales  in  1861,  being 
mostly  produced  by  the  labor  of  the  4,000,000  slaves. 

From  1861  to  1865  the  Civil  War  interfered  with  agricul- 
tural operations  so  that  the  average  annual  production 
(hiring  that   period  was  reduced   to  a   half  million  bales. 


4  INTRODUCTION. 

The  Civil  War  resulted  in  the  abolition  of  slavery.  The 
ill-advised  enfranchisement  of  the  slaves  who  were  led  by- 
dishonest  adventurers,  induced  a  condition  of  political  and 
industrial  disorder.  This  condition  retarded  the  recovery 
of  the  cotton  growing-  States  from  the  disastrous  effects 
of  the  war;  and  hence  it  required  about  ten  years  after  the 
war  for  the  cotton  planters  to  again  reach  a  production 
of  4,000,000  bales.  Since  that  time,  the  crop  has  contin- 
ually increased,  reaching  to  nearly  10,000,000  bales  in 
1900,  as  exhibited  by  the  following  table: 


INTRODUCTION. 


TABLE  I. 

SHOWING  THE  PRODUCTION    AND    PRICE    OF 
COTTON  FROM  1790  TO  1900. 

No'  Bales  Price  Per  Lb 

Year  500  Lbs.  Gross         in  New  York. 

1790 3.000  260 

1791 4.200  26.0 

1792 6,300  29.0 

1793 10400  32-0 

1794 l6'700  33-o 

1795 16700  36-5 

i796 20.800  36-5 

1797 22,900  34-0 

1798 31.200  39-° 

1799 4i  600  44-0 

1800    73-000  28.0 

1810 177,000  16.0 

1820    33i,5oo  170 

^30 689,800  10.0 

.1840 I.737-/0O  8-9 

1850 2,085.800  12.3 

i860 4,668,900  u  .c 

1865    250.000  80.0 

1870 2,862,300  24.0 

1880 5.449.2QO  12.0 

1890 7,311.400  11. 5 

1900 9-436400  8.7 

Continued  economies  in  the  cost  of  production,  and 
continued  demand  for  cotton  goods,  together  with  a 
great  increase  of  cotton  mill  building  in  the  cotton  pro- 
ducing States  will  no  doubt  lead  to  still  further  expansion 
of  the" crop  to  perhaps  15,000,000  within  the  next  decade. 

Coincident  with  the  upbuilding  of  the  cotton  growing 


b  INTRODUCTION. 

industry  to  such  proportions,  there  has  been  great  ac- 
tivity in  the  production  of  mechanical  devices  for  the 
preparation  and  handling  of  the  crop. 

The  separate  discussion  of  these  various  devices  and 
their  influence  on  the  scope  and  character  of  cotton  pro- 
duction furnishes  the  theme  for  the  most  of  Part  I.,  of  this 
book. 

TABLE  II. 

SHOWING  CHRONOLOGY    OF    SOME    EVENTS 
RELATING  TO  COTTON. 

1600. — Introduction  of  cotton  into  Virginia. 

1730. — John  Wyatt  spins  first  cotton  by  machinery  in 
England. 

1738. — John  Kay  invents  the  fly  shuttle. 

1767. — James  Hargreaves  invents  spinning  jenny. 

1769. — Richard  Arkwright  invents  drawing  rolls  for 
spinning  machine. 

1776. — Samuel  Crompton  invents  mule  jenny. 

1785. — Edmund  Cartwrig-ht  invents  power  loom.   ■ 

1787. — First  cotton  mill  in  Beverly.  Mass. 

1790. — First  cotton  mill  in  Pawtucket,  R.  I. 

1794. — Eli  Whitney  invents  cotton  gin. 

1796. — Hodgen  Holmes  invents  saw  gin. 

1796. — First  cotton  mill  in  Statesburg,  S.  C. 

181 3. — First  cotton  mill  in  Lincolnton.  N.  C. 


Part  J. 
COTTON 


CHAPTER  II. 

Gbe  Invention  of  the  Saw  (Sin. 

Much  as  has  been  written  on  the  subject  of  the  invention 
of  the  saw  cotton  gin,  the  question  as  to  the  credit  for  fun- 
damental ideas,  and  their  development  into  a  commercial 
machine,  seems  yet  to  lack  authoritative  discussion. 

It  is  so  easy  to  collate  a  large  amount  of  matter  from 
writers,  who  themselves  have  copied  the  works  of  others. 
purporting  to  relate  history,  that  it  is  small  wonder  that 
well  nigh  as  many  errors  as  facts  should  havebeen frequent- 
ly copied  and  re-copied.  This  seems  to  be  especially  the 
case  in  America  concerning  the  cotton  gin,  on  acount  of  its 
being  an  American  invention  of  such  note,  and  of  compar- 
atively recent  date. 

Crude  cotton  as  it  is  produced  in  the  held,  consists  of 
fluffy  masses  of  cotton  lint  adhering  10  seeds.  It  is  called 
in  this  condition  "seed  cotton."  The  varieties  of  cotton 
may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes;  "Upland"  ami 
''Sea  Island."  This  distinction  is  based  mainly  on  the 
length  of  the  fibre  or  "staple"  the  former  having  fibres  va- 
rying from  ^  to  1}  inches  and  the  latter  from  i-|  to  2* 
inches.  The  lint  of  upland  cotton  adheres  very  firmly  to 
the  seeds,  appearing  to  grow  out  of  it  like  wool  from  a 
sheep's  back.  The  seeds,  after  being  denuded  of  lint  as 
well  as  possible,  still  have  a  woolly  appearance.  In  a  great 
many  sub-varieties  the  seeds  are  green  in  color,  thus  giving 
to  upland  cotton,  in  general,  the  name  "green-seed  cot- 
ton." as  distinguished  from  Sea  Island  cotton,  whose  seeds 
are  black.  Sea  Island,  or  long  staple  cotton  does  not  ad- 
here so  closely  to  the  seeds,  and  it  can  be  easily  pulled  off 
clean,  leaving  the  seeds  perfectly  smooth.  These  seeds  are 
vulgarly  called  "bald-headed  seed." 

A  gin  is  a  machine  for  separating  lint  cotton  from  the 
seed.  The  word  gin  is  supposed  to  be  a  contraction  of 
eneine,  and  the  word  has  been  used  to  indicate  a  number  of 


IO  THE    INVENTION    OF    THE    SAW    GIN. 

contrivances  for  doing  work,  such  as  hoisting,  etc.,  on 
the  same  reasoning  that  in  England  at  the  present  time, 
the  machine  in  use  for  carding  cotton  is  known  as  the  card- 
ing engine. 

Recent  usage,  especially  in  America,  has  restricted  the 
use  of  the  word  engine  to*  mean  some  prime  mover,  and  1  he. 
use  of  the  word  gin  to  mean  cotton  gin. 

The  term  cotton,  as  commercially  used  in  the  United 
States,  refers  generally  to  upland  cotton,  that  being  the 
kind  mostly  produced.  When  Sea  Island  Cotton  is  referred 
to,  it  is  specially  mentioned.  In  the  same  way  the  term 
"gin"  is  used  to  designate  the  saw  gin,  which  is  the  partic- 
ular kind  in  use  with  upland  cotton.  The  machine  used  for 
separating  Sea  Island  cotton  from  the  seed  is  known  as  the 
"roller  gin." 

The.  saw  gin  lias  a  saw  cylinder,  made  up  of  circular  saws, 
spaced  by  collars  on  a  mandrel  or  shaft.  The  saws  project 
into  a  breast  box,  through  grooves  or  ribs  set  close  enough 
together  to  prevent  the  passage  of  seed.  The  teeth  pull  the 
lint  through  the  ribs  and  leave  seed  behind.  Revolving  in 
an  opposite  direction  to  the  saw-  toothed  cylinder,  parallel 
to  it,  and  in  a  contiguous  box,  is  another  cylinder  covered 
with  bristles,  which  brushes  the  lint  out  of  the  teeth  and 
delivers  it  into  a  room  or  into  a  condenser.  The  brush 
cylinder  revolves  4  or  5  times  as  fast  as  the  saw  cylinder. 

The  first  method  of  separating  lint  from  the  seed  was 
naturally  by  hand  picking.  The  next  method,  originating 
in  India  about  300  B.  C,  was  by  means  of  rollers,  which 
running  closely  together,  would  pull  the  lint  through  and 
leave  the  seed  behind. 

The  roller  gin  now  in  use  for  ginning  sea  island  cotton  is 
a  modern  development  from  this  India  gin. 

As  most  of  the  ancient  Eastern  cottons  were  of  the 
black  seed  varieties,  the  roller  gin  was  fairly  successful, 
though  the  seeds  would  often  become  cracked  between  the 
rollers  and  pass  on  through  and  mix  with  the  lint.  The 
seeds  contain  considerable  water  and  nitrogenous  matter. 


THE    INVENTION    OF   THE    SAW    GIN.  II 

so  that  those  crushed  are  liable  to  decay,  and  thus  to  give 
to  lint  cotton  prepared  in  this  manner  a  foul  odor. 

During  the  War  of  the  American  Revolution,  and  imme- 
diately thereafter,  cotton  culture  began  to  receive  consid- 
erable attention  in  the  Southern  States.  As  the  coa^t 
country  was  the  first  to  be  settled;  and  as  the  valuable  Sea 
Island  varieties  grew  to  perfection  on  that  soil,  these  were 
first  cultivated.  They  were  prepared  for  market  by  hand, 
and  by  the  roller  gins,  both  processes  being  very  slow. 
The  roller  gin  then  in  use  would  clean  about  5  times  as 
much  cotton  per  day  as  could  be  cleaned  by  hand. 

When  upland  varieties  began  to  be  cultivated  further 
inland  where  Sea  Island  would  not  grow,  the  roller  gin 
proved  entirely  inadequate  and  unsuitable,  so  that  the  ex- 
tension of  cotton  growing  soon  reached  its  limit.  In  many 
cases,  it  surpassed  the  limit,  and  much  cotton  was  wasted 
for  want  of  being  separated  from  its  seed,  and  made  ready 
for  market. 

In  1792,  Eli  Whitney  of  Massachusetts  went  by  boat  to 
Savannah,  Ga.,  from  which  place  he  intended  to  go  into  the 
interior  as  tutor  in  a  private  family.  On  the  same  boat  was 
traveling  Mrs.  Nathaniel  Greene,  the  widow  of  the  Ameri- 
can Revolutionary  General,  who  was  returning  from  a 
Northern  trip  to  her  home  at  Mulberry  Grove,  near  Savan- 
nah, Ga.  On  this  journey  Whitney  naturally  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Mrs.  Greene.  Arriving  in  Savannah,  he  failed 
to  perfect  his  arrangement  for  teaching  and  accepted  an  in- 
vitation from  Mrs.  Nathaniel  Greene  to  make  his  home  at 
her  house  and  pursue  the  study  of  law,  which  was  his  great 
desire. 

While  he  was  in  Mrs.  Greene's  house  he  exhibited  great 
talent  for  mechanics,  and  made  himself  useful  in  that  re- 
spect around  the  plantation. 

In  the  spring  of  1793.  some   old    comrades   of   Genera! 
Greene:     Majors  Brewer,  Forsythe  and   F'endleton,   wh 
lived  near  Augusta,  Ga.,  called  on   Mrs.   Greene.     In   the 
course  of  their  visit  they  discussed  the  troubles  of  agricul- 
ture in  the  upper  country,  and  mentioned    the    fact     that 


12  THE    INVENTION    OF    THE    SAW    GIN. 

much  upland  cotton  could  be  profitably  produced  if  there 
were  only  some  machine  for  separating  the  lint  f  rom  the 
seed.  Mrs.  Greene  proposed  that  they  talk  over  the  mat- 
ter with  young  Whitney.  The  result  of  that  visit  was  that 
Whitney  was  given  a  room  in  the  basement  of  the  house, 
and  after  considerable  experimenting,  produced  a  machine 
that  successfully  separated  the  lint  from  seed. 

Fig.  i  is  copied  from  an  old  print  which  is  said  to  repre- 
sent Whitney's  original  model.  This  is  not  an  official 
record,  but  it  is  confirmed  by  compaiison  with  the  patent 
drawing.  Fig.  3. 

In  1793  Whitney  went  to  New  Haven.  Conn.,  to  confer 
with  his  old  friend  and  patron,  Elizur  Goodrich  and  others, 
in  relation  to  obtaining  a  patent. 

The  original  description  in  Whitney's  own  words,  accom- 
panying his  petition  for  patent  was  filed  with  Thomas  Jef- 
ferson, Secretary  of  State  at  Philadelphia,  June  20,  1793. 
Whitney  also  made  affidavit  concerning  his  invention  be- 
fore Elizur  Goodrich,  Notary  Public,  and  Alderman  of 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  Oct.  28,  1793. 

A  patent  was  issued  to  Eli  Whitney  March  14,  1794,  and 
signed  by  George  Washington,  President,  Edmund  Ran- 
dolph, Secretary  of  State  and  Wm.  Bradford,  Attorney 
General. 

During  some  litigation  over  validity  of  the  patent  in  the 
United  States  District  Court  in  Savannah,  Georgia,  1804 
a  copy  of  the  complete  patent  and  specification  and  draw- 
ing was  filed  with  the  court.  This  copy  was  certified  by 
James  Madison,  Secretary  of  State.  April  27.  1804,  as 
shown  by  Fig.  2. 

This  copy,  taken  from  the  records  of  the  Court,  is  given 
verbatim  in  the  Appendix,  marked  Document  II.  Fig.  3 
is  a  photograph  of  the  drawing,  accompanying  this  cerri- 
fied  patent,  and  Fig.  6  is  the  certification  of  the  whole  set 
by  the  Deputy  Clerk  of  the  United  States  Court. 

These  documents  are  now  on  file  in  the  United  States 
Court  House,  Savannah,  Ga.,  and  are  believed  to  be  the 
only  authentic  records  of  this  patent  in    existence.     The 


Fig.  i 
Whitney's  Original  Model. 


14  THE    INVENTION    OF    THE    SAW    GIN. 

original  patent  papers  tiled  in  the  Patent  Office  by  Whit- 
ney in  1793,  were  destroyed  by  the  Patent  Office  tire  in 
1836.  See  Appendix,  Document  IV.  As  soon  as  possible 
after  this  fire,  the  authorities  made  efforts  to  obtain  copies 
of  all  papers  that  were  destroyed.  It  so  happened,  how- 
ever, that  they  never  secured  the  certified  copy  on  record 
in  Savannah,  Ga.,  but  they  received  from  some  source  not 
shewn  on  the  records,  on  Alay  2,  1S41,  what  purported  to 
be  a  copy  of  the  Whitney  patent.  Figs.  4  and  5  are  the 
drawings  accompanying  the  document.  The  full  text  of 
the  1841  specification  is  given  in  the  Appendix.  Document 
III. 

It  will  be  noticed  in  comparing  this  1841  record  with  the 
original,  that  the  original  specification  gives  a  much  more 
detailed  account  of  the  method  of  constructing  the  gin, 
even  to  the  extent  of  describing  and  illustrating  the  meth- 
od of  cutting  the  wire  which  was  used  for  making  the 
spiked  teeth  in  the  cylinder,  and  describing  in  great  detail 
the  method  of  inserting  the  bristles  in  the  brush,  and  giving 
some  alternate  methods;  and  in  all  other  cases  referring  to 
alternate  methods,  the  particular  alternate  methods  are  de- 
scribed. But  the  very  clear  and  extended  specification  in 
the  original  makes  no  suggestion  of  an  alternate  method  of 
constructing  the  cylinder,  as  for  example,  the  use  of  circu- 
lar saws.  Neither  does  the  original  drawing  show  any 
suggestion  of  saws.  But  the  specification  of  1841  con- 
cludes with  a  paragraph  not  found  in  the  original,  viz: 
"There  are  several  modes  of  making  the  various  parts  of 
this  machine,  which,  together  with  their  particular  shape 
and  formation  are  pointed  out  and  explained  in  a  descrip- 
tion with  drawings,  attested,  as  the  Act  directs,  and  lodged 
in  the  Office  of  the  Secretary  of  State." 

There  is  a  curious  mistake  noticeable  in  the  drawing  of 
1841,  Fig.  4,  that  would  surely  indicate  that  Eli  Whitney 
himself  never  even  saw  it;  that  is,  the  handle  by  which  the 
machine  is  to  be  turned,  is  aoplied  to  the  brush  shaft,  instead 
of  the  main  cylinder,  which  is  the  wav  it  is  described  in  both 


l6  THE    INVENTION    OK    THE    SAW    GIN. 

the  authentic  and  the  substituted  specification;  and  this  is 
the  only  way  it  could  be  made  to  work  in  practice. 

Whitney's  authentic  specifications  say,  in  describing  the 
brush  :  "IV.  The  clearer,  C  Fig.  I,  is  constructed  in  the 
following  manner:  Take  an  iron  axis,  perfectly  similar  to 
that  described  as  extending  through  the  cylinder,  except 
that  it  need  not  be  so  large  nor  fitted  for  the  application  of 
a  winch. 

Whoever  made  the  drawing  for  the  patent  office  after  the 
fire,  could  not  have  understood  the  principles  of  the  gin, 
otherwise,  this  error  m  placing  the  winch  (or  hand  crank) 
could  not  have  occurred. 

These  substituted  drawings  have  some  of  the  features  of 
the  authentic  patent  drawings,  besides  some  features  of  the 
gins  that  were  built  about  1841.  They  also  embrace  a 
number  of  features  totally  at  variance  with  the  principles 
of  Whitney's  or  any  other  gin. 

The  substituted  drawings  show  sketches  of  saws,  while 
there  is  nothing  in  the  authentic  drawings  or  specifications, 
even  in  the  most  remote  way,  suggesting  the  idea  of  a  saw. 
These  peculiar  additions,  which  occur  in  the  substituted 
documents,  were  evidently  intended  to  establish  a  claim 
for  Whitney  for  the  invention  of  the  saw  gin,  whereas  the 
authentic  patent  papers  amply  refute  such  a  claim. 

The  substituted  specifications,  while  being  in  the  main 
a  synopsis  of  the  authentic  specifications,  omit  all  reference 
to  drawings,  either  original  or  substituted. 

There  were  tried  in  the  United  States  Court,  district  of 
Georgia,  27  suits  for  infringement  of  the  Whitney  gin  pat- 
ent. Among  the  papers  in  the  evidence  introduced  in  these 
suits,  is  a  certified  copy  of  a  patent  for  a  gin,  issued  May 
12,  1796,  to  Hodgen  Holmes  of  Augusta,  Ga. 

A  certified  copy  of  this  patent  is  given  in  full  in  the  Ap- 
pendix, Document  VI. 

No  drawing  accompanies  the  patent,  and  the  specifica- 
tions are  very  meagre.  The  patent  in  itself  does  not  in  any 
way  describe  the  fundamental  operations  of  the  gin,  and 
does  not  state  whether  the  teeth  are  made  of  wire  or  cut 


Fig.  3. 
Original  Certified  Patent  Drawing. 

Note  that  110  saws  are  shown. 


Sottm  Quz. 


Z/Jfaoefcs—sS'/vaet/. 


f%faited-/%ar./4,  /?&4  ■ 


^y:&3. 


Fig.  4. 
Drawing  Accompanying-,  the   Substituted   Patent. 

Note  that  saws  are  shown  on  this  drawing. 


3p'/oaeda-  -/S.'iasZ  £. 


Cotton  C/i/2. 


-JFf:8. 


JL^if.S 


-ZfrtU. 


Fig.   5.     Drawing-  Accompanying  Substituted  Patent. 


20  THE   INVENTION    OE   THE    SAW    GIN. 

out  of  sheet  metal  in  the  shape  of  saws.  The  model  which 
would  demonstrate  that,  was  burned  in  the  Patent  Office,, 
and  has  never  been  replaced.  The  records  show  that 
Holmes  was  not  a  man  of  collegiate  education.  It  is  natu- 
ral, therefore,  that  his  specifications,  which  had  to  be  put 
in  the  inventor's  own  language,  should  not  be  so  clear  as 
that  of  Whitney,  who  was  a  Yale  graduate,  and  who  had 
the  assistance  of  two  Yale  Professors,  (Josiah  Stebbins  and 
Elizur  Goodrich),  in  the  preparation  of  his  papers. 

It  is  certain  that  Holmes  was  granted  a  patent,  signed 
by  George  Washington,  President,  Timothy  Pickering, 
Secretary  of  State  and  Chas.  Lee,  Attorney  General.  It  is 
also  certain  that  gins  with  saw  teeth  were  in  use  about  that 
time.  In  a  book  (Origin,  Cultivation  and  Uses  of  Cotton) 
by  W.  B.  Seabrook,  President  Agricultural  Society  o.p 
South  Carolina,  published  in  Charleston  in  1844,  the  au- 
thor says:  "The  Holmes  machine  was  set  up  in  the  grisi 
mill  of  Capt. James  Kincaid  on  Mill  Creek  in  Craven  (now 
Fairfield)  County,  South  Carolina,  in  1 795,  and  is  reported 
to  have  been  the  first  of  the  saw  gins  used  in  that  State." 

In  the  petition  for  injunction,  filed  in  the  United  States 
Court,  District  of  Georgia,  by  Whitney  vs.  Arthur  Fort 
and  John  Powell,  March  16,  1804.  (For  full  text  see  Ap- 
pendix, Document  V.)  Defendants  are  charged  with  in- 
fringements beginning  1800.  In  the  petition  occurs  this 
language:  "And  it  is  also  pretended  .  .  .  that  the  ma- 
chine used  by  them  contains  in  it  an  improvement;  .  .  . 
that  is  to  say,  teeth,  cut  into  circular  pieces  of  metal." 

A  great  deal  of  Whitney's  correspondence  has  been  pub- 
lished, in  which  the  invention  is  discussed;  but  previous  to 
the  letter  by  his  partner  Miller  to  Whitney,  Feb.  15,  1707, 
no  allusion  whatever  is  made  to  the  saw  principle.  In  this 
letter,  Miller  says:, "It  will  be  best  to  take  the  deposition  of 
Goodrich  and  Stebbins  on  the  subject  of  ratchet  wheels, 
which  may  hereafter  be  rendered  useful."  The  words 
"ratchet  wheels"  refer  to  a  description  often  used  in  court 
in  describing  gin  saws.  This  was  on  account  of  the  simi- 
laritv  of  the  ein  saw  to  the  thin  iron  ratchet  wheel  used  on 


THE    INVENTION    OF    THE    SAW    GIN.  21 

the  end  of  the  wooden  cloth  roll  of  a  hand  loom  to  hold 
the  cloth  taut.  The  full  text  of  this  letter  is  given  in 
Appendix,  Document  VII. 

The  only  evidence  adduced  to  prove  that  Whitney 
invented  the  saw  principle,  is  the  deposition  of  some  Yale 
College  friends  of  \\  hitney's  in  New  haven,  taken  Nov.  7, 
1807,  fourteen  years  after  the  first  specifications  were  writ- 
ten. These  depositions  were  taken  by  commission,  at 
whose  sittings  the  defence  (though  formally  noLified)  were 
not  represented.  These  depositions  are  now  on  file  among 
the  Court  records  above  mentioned.  They  are  all  t3  the 
effect  that  the  saw  was  in  Whitney's  mind  when  he  made 
the  invention,  although  it  was  not  mentioned  in  the  speci- 
fications. 

This  research  and  discussion  is  not  intended  as  an  im- 
peachment, even  by  insinuation  of  the  characters  of  the 
New  Haven  witnesses,  most  of  whom  the  records  show  to 
be  men  of  importance  and  integrity;  but  it  seems  proper 
to  call  attention  to  the  facts: 

1.  That  they  testified  to  matters  happening  14  years 
previously. 

2.  That  there  were  only  two  years  intervening  between 
the  issuance  of  Whitney's  patent  describing  the  spiked 
cylinder,  and  the  issuance  of  the  Holmes  patent  for  the  saw 
cylinder. 

3.  That  Whitney  himself  did  at  some  early  date  make 
the  gins  with  saws,  and  that  it  would  naturally  be  hard  to 
get  the  dates  exact,  after  so  long  a  time  and  at  so  great  a 
distance. 

4.  That  the  memories  of  these  witnesses  were,  amply  re- 
freshed. In  support  of  this  last  observation  is  adduced  a 
letter,  dated  Oct.  15,  1803,  from  Whitney  to  Josiah  Steb- 
bins,  one  of  the  witnesses  to  whom  interrogatories  were 
addressed.  In  this  letter,  Whitney  asks  Stebbins  to 
depose  as  follows:  "I  Jos.  Stebbins,  etc.,  etc.,  do  testify 
and  declare  .  .  .  that  in  the  autumn  of  1873  .  .  . 
that  said  Whitney  repeatedly  told  me  that  he  had  orig- 
inally contemplated  making  a  whole  row  of  teeth  from  one 


22  THE    INVENTION    OF   THE    SAW    GIN. 

plate  or  piece  of  metal.     *     *     ;;:     /  hope  you  will  be  able 
call  to  mind  the  circumstances  mentioned  above.     *     *." 

The  full  text  of  this  letter  is  given  in  Appendix,  Docu 
ment  VIII.  The  fact  that  the  depositions  of  most  of  the 
other  witnesses  examined  were  substantially  in  the  lan- 
guage of  this  letter  written  by  Whitney  to  Stebbins,  seems 
to  afford  reasonable  ground  for  stating  that  the  memories 
of  the  other  witnesses  were  similarly  refreshed. 

When  the  case  versus  Fort  and  Powell  came  up  for  fin:  1 
adjudication,  the  Court  gave  a  decree  for  perpetual  injunc- 
tion. Prof.  Olmstead  quotes  the  text  of  the  decree,  in. 
which  occurs  the  following  language:  "A  Mr.  Ho'mes  has 
cut  teeth  in  plates  of  iron,  and  passed  them  over  the  cylin- 
der. This  is  certainly  a  meritorious  improvement  in  the 
mechanical  process  of  constructing  this  machine  +  +  +  . 
Whitney  may  not  be  at  liberty  to  use  Mr.  Holmes'  iron 
plate,  but  certainly  Mr.  Holmes'  improvement  dc  es  not 
e'estroy  Mr.  Whitney's  patent  right." 

The  defence  in  all  of  the  extensive  litigation  ever  the 
patent  in  Georgia,  consists  principally  in  claiming  that 
there  was  a  prior  invention.  The  witnesses  mostly  relied 
upon  to  prove  this  were  Dr.  John  Cortes  Dyampert  of  Co- 
lumbia County,  Georgia,  and  Mr.  Roger  McCarthy  of 
Chatham  County,  Georgia.  The  former  swore  he  saw  a 
machine  "somewhere  in  the  Domains  of  the  King  of  Prus- 
sia" in  1773.  used  for  making  lint  "n  hospitals.  McCarthv 
swore  he  saw  something  similar  in  1790  or  1791.  But  it 
developed  on  cross-examination,  and  on  the  introduction 
of  numerous  other  witnesses,  whose  depositions  are  on  file 
among;  the  Court  records,  that  these  machines  were  on  en- 
tirely difT'erenl  principles,  and  used  for  other  purpose'. 
There  were  no  means  of  separation  other  than  gravity  in 
any  of  these  machines,  and  they  were  all  fcr  heating  and 
cleaning  lint  after  seed  had  been  removed. 

It  was  finally  admitted  by  the  defence  that  Whitney's 
invention  was  new,  but  that  the  infringing  machines  were 
made  before  Whitney's  model  was  publicly  exhibited,  or 
before  it  was  publicly  announced  that  he  had  a  patent. 


Unit  Estates  of  America)*  ^ 

^c^c^.X^         division.        )ss 
SOU  THERM  DIS  TRICT  OF  GEORGfrfj/?  /?  y?  ,  -, 

^  i,    ^/Ji^M^,  dyt^  aerk  of  the 

0<U  &~-r~*  court   of   the  UniteoyStates  of  America,  for  the  Southern  District  of 


of ....         *~^    ytfrespedwQ  original   now  onfi£r,  and  remaining  on  record  in  my  offit 


Georgia,  do  hereby  certify  that  the  Writing  annexed,  to  this  certificate        °~*         ^ true  eop^f 

nginat I   now  onJj£r,  and  remaining  on  record  in  my  offic&y. 


^^WCfrX1!         IN  WITNESS  WHEREOF,  I  have  caused  the  seat  of  the  said  Court  to  bt 


hereunto  affixed,  at  the.  Citu°fifa"'ei~~~*±-,       e?.  in  the  Southern 
District  of    Georgia,  this  /^         day  of  c^^c\/  ..... 

\.  L,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  riinety^pr-r- 

\  .^\.:^  and  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States,  the  one  hundred  and 


Clerk. 


the    frame, in    such  manner  as    to   give    room   for   the    clearer   on    one    SJde   of    lt 
ana   the  Hopper  on   the  other,.*   in   fig. J.-   Us  height, if   the  machine  i3 
wo^ed   by  hanc;  shouici  be  about   three  feet  four   inches:  otherwise    it, may  be 

Fig.  6. 

Certification  of  Whitney   Patents,  etc.,  showing-  few  lines 
of  the  document  attached. 

Full  Text  in  Appendix,  Document  II 


24  the;  invention  of  the  saw  gin. 

See  Fort's  answer  in  Whitney  vs.  Fort  and  Powell,  LT. 
S.  Court,  District  of  Georgia,  Dec.  17,  1805,  Appendix:, 
D(  cnment  V. 

There  is  a  widespread  allegation  that  "Whitney  was  bad- 
ly treated  in  the  South."  This  seems  to  rest  on  the  rumor 
that  his  first  model  was  stolen  from  his  shop  at  Mulberry 
Grove,  Ga.,  that  copies  of  it  were  widely  made  and  used 
without  license,  that  his  witnesses  failed  to  appear  at  the 
trials,  that  the  South  Carolina  legislature  after  agreeing 
to  pay  him  for  the  patent,  afterward  rescinded  its  action; 
and  finally  that  there  was  a  conspiracy  among  the  cotton 
planters  to  invalidate  his  patent. 

As  to  the  burglary  of  Whitney's  shop,  and  stealing  of  his 
models,  there  is  not  a  word  in  the  voluminous  records  of 
evidence  in  the  infringement  suits,  extending  over  1 3 
years.  Neither  is  any  mention  made  of  it  in  his  published 
correspondence.  This  seems  conclusive  proof  that  the 
story  is  of  subsequent  and  spurious  origin. 

The  facts  regarding  Whitney's  experiences  with  the 
legislature  of  South  Carolina,  have  been  carefully  investi- 
gated, and  an  abstract  of  the  State  House  Records  on  thi? 
subject  is  given  in  the  Appendix,  Document  IX. 

An  examination  of  these  papers  shows  that  Dec.  10, 
1801,  at  the  close  of  the  session,  the  legislature  passed  a 
bill  purchasing  the  Whitney  patent  right  for  the  State  for 
$50,000,  agreeing  to  pay  $20,000  in  cash,  and  the  remain- 
der in  three  equal  annual  installments,  provided  Whitney 
would  make  "within  a  reasonable  time"  two  models  of  his 
gin,  in  his  very  best  style,  and  file  them  for  public  inspec- 
tion in  the  State  capitol,  and  provided  further,  that  Whit 
ney  should  refund  all  the  amounts  previously  collected  for 
license  in  the  State.  The  cash  payment  was  promptly 
made.  But  Whitney  did  not,  within  two  years  comply 
with  either  requirement.  The  legislature  in  1803  declared 
the  contract  forfeited,  and  provided  for  entering  suit  for 
the  recovery  of  the  first  payment.  This  action  brought 
the  final  fulfillment  of  the  conditions  on  the  part  of  Whit- 
ney, in  1804,  and  then  the  legislature  of  1804  ordered  the 


Un/teW States  of  America,] 

'y&<**~&**-  DIVISION         \ss 

SOUTHERN  DISTRICT  OF  GEORGIA) 


4* 


^Ua 


Court   of   the  Un 


Georgia.,  dd/kereby  certify  that  the  Writing 

of Sp  respective,  aHginal   now  on  file,  and  re/pa 

Stefi  C^.~£^  &^p£' 


Clerk  of  the 
'es  of  America.,  for  the  Southern  District  of 

exed  to  this  certificate true  cop6*? 

i  in  my  office,. 


hereunto  affixed,  at  the  City 

District  qf  Georgia,  this  day  of 

in  the  year  of  oar  lord,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  ninety 


the  seal  of  the  said  Court  to  he 
'<2^">*V       of  in  the  Southern 


and  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States,  the  one  hundred  and 


n-1    inventor.  the  principle  (,f  wWch    Invention   consists    m   me   art    of  e*- 

troctinrt   the    cotton    from    the    seed   by  m*™S   „t    fcetVi     c„„  rMC.,tl 

Fig.  7. 

Certification  of  Bill  of  Injunction  by  Deputy  Clerk  U.   S. 

Court,  showing  few  lines  of  Document  attached. 

Full  Text  in  Appendix,  Document  V. 


D.      I, 

North  C< 


it-is  < 


26  THE    INVENTION    OE    THE    SAW    GIN. 

suit  discontinued  and  reinstated  the  contract  in  accord- 
ance with  which  the  deferred  payments  were  promptly 
made. 

The  legislature  of  North  Carolina  in  December,  i8o_\ 
bought  the  patent  right  for  that  State,  and  agreed  to  pa\ 
for  it  by  a  special  tax  of  2  shillings  and  six  pence  on  each 
saw  used  in  a  gin  within  the  State  for  four  years.  This  tax 
was  properly  collected  and  turned  over  to  the  inventor, 
amounting  to  about  thirty  thousand  dollars. 

Whitney's  plan  in  Georgia,  as  shown  by  his  letters 
and  other  evidence  was  to  own  all  the  gins  and  gin 
A\  the  cotton  made  in  the  country.  It  is  but  human 
nature  that  this  sort  of  monopoly  should  be  odious 
to  any  community;  and  when  to  this  is  added  the  fact,  (as 
shown  by  letters  to  Whitney  in  Connecticut,  from  his  part- 
ner Miller  in  Georgia)  that  Whitney  and  Miller  could  nor 
supply  the  demand  for  gins,  it  seems  natural  that  there 
should  have  been  much  infringement.  After  the  s.  ins  were 
introduced  in  1794,  there  was  a  large  cotton  crop  made  for 
the  next  season,  on  the  presumption  that  it  could  be  pre- 
pared for  the  market  on  the  new  machines.  But  when  the 
crop  was  gathered,,  and  the  gins  were  not  forthcoming, 
many  planters  had  rude  gins  made  in  their  own  blacksmith 
shops.  From  this  circumstance,  arose  the  rumors  that  the 
various  workmen  who  made  the  gins  were  the  original  in- 
ventors. One  of  the  traditions  crediting  the  invention  to 
Jesse  Bui!  of  Columbia  County,  Ga  ,  (afterwards  of  La 
Grange,  Ga.,)  arose  from  the  circumstance  of  a  gin  having 
been  made  for  Bull  by  one  of  his  employees,  Nathan  Lyons. 
It  is  said  that  when  the  first  Whitney  gins  were  in  use  in 
the  country,  no  one  but  women  were  allowed  to  see  them, 
and  that  Nathan  Lyons,  disguised  as  a  woman,  saw  the 
gin  and  copied  it. 

This  legendary  story  has  no  authentic  foundation.  The 
voluminous  evidence  in  the  infringement  suits  nowhere  re- 
fers to  such  an  incident. 

Quite  a  number  of  legends  about  the  invention  of  the  gin 
have  no  foundation  whatever  in  fact.     For  example,  the 


UNrTEtrimSTATES  OF  AMERICA,}  *V* 

d2-kz!~~~-- „   -DIVISION         | ss- 

SOUTHERN  DISTRICT  OF  GEORCI/y's? 

I,. A^^  /0pL<J&'^~' SO^f^         Clerk  of  the 

.Court  of  the  imted  States  of  America,  for  the  Southern  District  of 


£x^©L~y^ 


Georgia,  do  hereby 


rtify  that  the  Writing  annexed  to  this  eertificate 


espectiue  original   now  on  file,  and  remaining  ajfSecord  in  my  office,    *- 

^^^eeJ  ZII.Z1IC.  Jl.. 


-pS^ \ '^Sil'Vi bpn  /jV   W/TNESS  WHEREOF,  I  have  caus^/lhe  seal  of  the  said  Court  to  be 

jf^lif^^jy^^O^?  hereunto  affixed,  at  the  City°rf%%2&!Z<~  ~fj    ^  •„  the  Southern 

?!'  ■  "'v';r-    fc 


^gt,ia 


Zteto'rt  o/  Georgia,  this  '    *  dag  of^°y' 

in  the  year  of  our  Lord.,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  ninety 
and  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States,  the  one  hundred  and 
twentyA~~~>  /^X7^     ,  ^ 

S<2^^^L^f-tlerk. 


mads    a   pai-t    c:0    thoa>, 


tiw   seVicAtito   b<»reti 


ha«e    caused    these    letu. 


Fig.  8. 

Certification  of   Holmes'   Patent  by   Deputy   Clerk,   U.    S. 

Court,  showing:  few  lines  of  document  attached. 


Full   Text  in  Appendix,  Document  VI. 


25  THE   INVENTION    OF   THE    SAW    GIN. 

pleasant  little  story  about  the  gin  brush  being  suggested 
by  the  lady  with  her  turkey  tail  fan. 

Holmes  became  a  successful  and  prosperous  planter. 
His  descendents  are  numerous  in  South  Carolina  and 
Georgia,  and  are  people  of  high  social  standing. 

The  real  facts  about  the  cotton  gin  are : 

1.  Eli  Whitney,  of  Mass.,  a  graduate  of  Yale  College, 
invented  a  cotton  gin,  consisting  of  spikes  driven  in  a 
wooden  cylinder,  and  having  a  slotted  bar  through  which 
these  spiked  teeth  passed,  and  having  a  brush  to  clear 
the  spikes.  He  obtained  a  patent  March  14,  1794,  signed 
by  George  Washington,  President,  Edmund  Randolph, 
Secretary  of  State,  and  Wm.  Bradford,  Attorney  General. 

2.  Hodgen  Holmes,  of  Georgia,  a  resourceful  and  prac- 
tical mechanic,  invented  an  improved  gin,  using  circu- 
lar saws  properly  spaced,  passing  through  spaces  between 
ribs.  For  this  invention  he  obtained  a  patent  May  12, 
1796,  signed  by  George  Washington,  President,  Timothy 
Pickering,  Secretary  of  State,  and  Chas.  Lee,  Attorney 
General. 

3.  Whitney's  invention,  consisting  of  a  wooden  cylinder, 
carrying  annular  rows  of  wire  spikes,  with  a  slotted  bar 
and  clearing  brush  was  fundamental. 

4.  The  practical  application  of  the  fundamental  idea  was 
Holmes'  invention  of  the  saw  gin,  which  consisted  ot  a 
mandrel  or  shaft  cairying  collars  separating  circular  saws 
which  pass  through  narrow  spaces  between  ribs. 

5.  Whitney  went  South  without  money,  business  experi- 
ence or  mechanical  training.  He  received  from  the  South- 
ern States  the  following  amounts : 

From  South  Carolina $50,000 

From  North  Carolina,  (at  least) 30,000 

From  Tennessee,  (about) 10,000 

Royalties  from  Southern  States $90,000     

6.  In  Georgia,  his  firm  (Miller  &  Whitney)  attempted 
to  monopolize  the  ginning  business.  This  brought  on 
long  and  vexatious  litigation,  and  the  object  was  never 
successfully  accomplished. 


®i4^ 


1  !i  1  $ 


H 


V 


si 


w 


o 


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CHAPTER  TIL 

£be  [preparation  of  Cotton  for  the  flDarfcet 
Mitb  Slave  Xabor. 

After  the  invention  of  the  cotton  gin,  a  plan  of  struc- 
ture was  soon  developed  for  the  storage  of  cotton,  and  in 
which  the  separation  of  the  cotton  from  the  seed  was  ac- 
complished by  the  new  machine.  Generally,  whoever 
bought  one,  built  a  house  in  which  to  place  and  use  it, 
the  house  being  so  arranged  as  to  cover  the  necessary 
machinery  to  operate  the  gin  by  power  from  two  or  four 
mules  or  horses.  Accompanying  this  structure,  there 
was  usually  a  large  press,  the  principal  feature  of  which 
was  a  large  wooden  screw.  This  press  was  for  packing 
the  lint  cotton  into  bales.  The  main  building,  above  re- 
ferred to,  was  called  the  gin  house.  The  press,  taking  its 
name  from  its  principal  member,  was  called  the  screw, 
(possibly  originally  screw  press). 

As  these  structures  were  developed  in  the  early  days  of 
cotton  raising,  so  their  shape  and  appearance  remained, 
generally  speaking,  much  like  the  original  patterns  until 
1875  to  1880.  Up  to  that  period  it  may  be  said  that  no 
improvement  of  any  consequence  had  been  made,  and 
even  at  that  period,  few  plantations  were  without  the  old 
style  gin  house  and  screw;  though  in  many  cases  the  horse 
power  had  been  supplanted  by  a  small  steam  engine. 

The  requirements  were  as  follows: 

1.  A  place  to  store  the  seed  cotton  as  it  was  gathered 
from  the  field. 

2.  A  suitable  place  for  the  operation  of  the  gin. 

3.  A  lint  room  to  receive  the  cotton  as  it  came  from 
the  gin. 

4.  A  lint  room  to  receive  the  lint  cotton  for  temporary 
storage  while  waiting  to  be  packed. 


COTTON  WITH  SLAVE  LABOR.  35 

5.  A  place  for  the  "running  gear"  or  driving  apparatus, 
so  located  that  horse  or  mule  power  could  be  applied  and 
be  under  shelter. 

The  arrangement  most  common,  and  almost  uniform, 
was  a  one  and  a  half  or  two  story  building  in  which  the 
main  part  of  the  the  lower  story  was  left  without  floor  or 
sides,  except  where  the  side  of  the  lint  room  adjoined  it, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  12.  It  was  practically  a  building  set  up 
on  wood  pillars  or  columns,  braced  to  make  it  firm  and 
steady.  The  gin  was  placed  in  the  second  story,  called 
the  gin  room;  but  this  was  always  made  large  enough  to 
serve  as  a  store  room  for  seed  cotton  as  it  was  brought  in 
from  the  field  by  the  pickers. 

The  gin  discharged  lint  cotton  into  an  upper  lint  room. 
This  lint  would  be  thrown  down  by  hand  through  a  door 
into  a  second  lint  room,  adjoining  it,  and  reaching  down 
nearly  to  the  ground.  Here  it  would  be  trampled  down 
to  save  room,  while  waiting  to  be  carried  out  to  the  press. 

In  the  open  space  under  the  gin  floor,  was  a  vertical 
wooden  shaft  with  long  levers  passing  through  it  at  a 
proper  height  from  the  the  ground  for  hitching  the  mules. 
On  this  vertical  shaft,  above  the  levers,  was  a  large 
wooden  cog  wheel,  eight  to  ten  feet  in  diameter.  The 
cogs  were  made  of  hickory,  and  were  mortised  into  the 
wooden  rim.  These  meshed  with  the  "wallowers"  or 
"wabblers",  set  into  the  circumference  of  a  horizontal 
shaft,  which  turned  in  wooden  hangers  suspended  from 
the  beams  of  the  upper  floor,  as  shown  in  Fig.  13.  On 
this  horizontal  shaft  was  a  plain  wooden  pulley  six  or 
eight  feet  in  diameter,  and  from  which,  by  means  of  a 
belt,  the  gin  was  driven.  On  the  saw  shaft  of  the  gin  was 
an  eight-  to  twelve-inch  pulley  which  received  the  belt 
from  the  driving  pulley.  It  was  desired  to  drive  the  gin 
at  the  rate  of  200  to  300  revolutions  per  minute.  These 
wooden  cog  wheels  and  pulleys,  clumsy  as  they  were, 
were  usually  preferable  to  castings,  because  the  first  cost 
was  much  Jess,  and  the  necessary  skill  and  material  were 


36  COTTON  WITH  SLAVE  LABOR. 

both  available  to  keep  them  in  repair,  neither  the  labor 
nor  material  costing"  anything. 

After  the  cotton  was  ginned  it  became  necessary  to  put 
it  into  some  kind  of  a  package  for  the  market.  In  the 
earlier  gin  houses  there  was  a  circular  hole  cut  through 
the  upper  floor,  probably  three  to  three  and  one-half  feet 
in  diameter.  Through  this  hole  a  large  sack  was  sus- 
pended. The  lint  cotton  was  packed  into  this  by  hand, 
making  for  the  market  what  was  called  a  "bag  of  cotton." 
(Among  old  people  at  the  present  time,  this  term  survives 
as  a  designation  for  a  bale  of  cotton,  of  any  kind.)  Jt 
afterwards  became  desirable  to  make  bales  5  to  5^  feet 
long,  about  30  inches  thick,  and  40  to  48  inches  wide, 
weighing  400  to  500  pounds.  This  grew  to  be  the  stan- 
dard size  and  shape  of  the  bale.  It  was  the  result  of  the 
conditions  surrounding  the  plantation.  The  body  of  the 
wagon,  in  which  the  bales  must  be  taken  to  market,  held 
four  of  them  neatly.  When  it  was  desired  to  haul  more 
than  four  bales,  others  could  be  loaded  cross-wise  and  on 
top  of  the  four  in  the  body  of  the  wagon;  then,  still  others 
on  top  of  these,  or  as  shown  in  Fig.  14.  Ten  bales  was 
usually  the  limit  of  the  load  for  a  team  of  six  mules.  It 
was  thus  that  most  of  the  cotton  was  sent  to  market. 
Such  a  load  was  rather  top-heavy,  and  the  bales  were  in 
some  cases  bound  to  the  wagon  by  a  pole  passing  over 
them  from  front  to  rear  which  was  tied  down  at  each  end 
by  means  of  ropes,  to  the  body  or  the  frame  of  the  wagon. 
Topmost  of  all  for  long  trips,  was  an  arch  frame,  made  of 
bent  wood  and  covered  with  canvass,  under  which  corn, 
fodder  and  food  was  stored  for  the  trip. 

Much  cotton  was  hauled  in  loads  of  this  kind  a  distance 
of  fifty,  and  even  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  From  the 
large  plantations  two  or  three  such  loads  would  be  sent 
together.  No  fault  was  ever  found  with  the  size  or 
weight  of  the  bales.  It  rarely  happened  that  there  was 
less  than  twice  the  force  at  hand  to  do  anything  ordinarilv 
required  to  be  done  in  the  way  of  handling  cotton.   Much 


COTTON  WITH  SLAVE  LABOR.  39 

of  the  humanity  on  a  plantation  was  usually  present  to 
help  load  and  fit  out  the  wagons  for  a  trip  to>  the  market 
town,  and  a  whole  day  would  frequently  be  devoted  to 
loading  and  preparing.  The  "gear"  must  be  overhauled. 
(Mules  were  usually  driven  in  "gear,"  not  harness.  A 
set  of  gear  consists  of  a  collar  made  of  shucks  or  poplar 
bark,  a  pair  of  names,  a  name-string,  two  trace  chains  and 
a  back  band.)  The  wagon  cover  often  required  patching 
and  the  carpenter  and  smith  must  tighten  nuts,  put  in 
new  bolts,  and  do  such  other  repairs  as  seemed  to  them 
necessary  to  insure  a  safe  trip.  The  season  of  hauling 
cotton  generally  brought  bad  weather,  and  the  heavy 
travel  of  the  cotton  wagons  would  cause  bad  roads  to  be 
the  rule.  There  was  a  fellow  feeling  amongst  the  wagon- 
ers on  the  road,  and  they  helped  each  other  out  of  mires. 
up  steep  hills,  and  in  cases  of  overturning. 

Everything  being  in  readiness,  an  early  start  was  usually 
made  from  the  plantation.  Plenty  of  extra  help  was  al- 
ways on  hand,  and  besides  the  wagoner  for  each  team, 
and  perhaps  a  couple  of  helpers  for  each,  several  other 
stout  hands  would  go,  three,  five  and  even  fifteen  miles, 
and  then  return  home. 

The  delight  of  the  planter's  young  sons,  twelve  to  six- 
teen years  old,  was  to  be  allowed  to  accompany  these 
wagons  to  market.  The  trip  required  three  to  six  days, 
and  even  longer.  When  the  sons  would  go,  they  would 
camp  out  with  the  negroes,  live  on  the  same  fare,  and 
often  the  members  of  the  party  would  have  a  little  "'pos- 
sum hunt"  after  camp  was  struck  at  night. 

It  was  by  this  sort  of  contact  and  fellowship  with  the 
negroes  that  the  planter's  son  acquired  that  exact  knowledge 
of  the  negroes'  character  which  qualified  him  subsequently 
to  control  them  on  the  plantation.  Much  of  this  fellowship 
of  the  planter's  son  with  the  negroes  would  now  be  consid- 
ered coarse.  Most  of  his  sports  of  that  time  were  rough, 
but  both  these  conditions  contributed  to  the  stimulation  of 
the  spirit  of  aristocracy. 


4<D  COTTON    WiTH    SLAVE    LABOR. 

If  the  mistress  or  young  ladies  should  go,  it  was  in  the 
heavy  carriage  peculiar  to  the  time  and  section.  The 
planter  himself  would  be  on  horseback  or  in  an  open 
buggy  with  a  servant. 

The  abundance  of  help  to  handle  them,  and  these  cum- 
brous trips,  in  which  heavy  single  bales  remained  best  on 
the  wagons,  made  the  weight,  shape  and  size  of  the  bale 
which  was  made  under  the  screw  the  most  desirable, 
and  therefore  it  was  that  the  screw  was  designed  to  make 
them. 

The  necessary  quantity  of  cotton  to  make  a  bale  could 
be  packed  by  the  weight  of  two  men  into  a  box  with  di- 
mensions equal  to  the  length  and  thickness  of  the  bale  and 
about  nine  feet  high.  To  press  this  down  to  the  forty 
inches  was  the  work  of  the  screw.  A  heavy  frame  was 
made  containing  the  box  as  described.  See  Fig.  29. 
This  frame  extended  above  the  box  and  held  a  large  nut 
made  of  four  massive  blocks  of  timber  firmly  pinned  to 
gether.  Through  this  wooden  nut  passed  a  large  wooden 
screw,  cut  out  of  a  log  14  to  16  inches  in  diameter,  and 
with  threads  about  four  inches  broad  or  eight  and  one- 
half  inches  pitch,  fitting  in  similar  threads  in  the  nut.  To 
be  able  to  lay  out  and  cut  the  threads  in  this  screw  and 
nut,  and  have  them  fit  properly  and  work  well  was  the 
test  of  a  plantation  mechanic's  ability  as  a  mill-wright 
and  carpenter.  From  the  upper  end  of  this  screw,  long 
sloping  levers  extended  very  nearly  to  the  ground  when  the 
screw  was  down,  and  to  these  levers,  mules  were  hitched 
and  driven  around  to  pull  the  screw  up  and  down  in  pack- 
ing the  bale. 

Proper  sheds  were  put  about  the  lower  part  of  the 
structure,  and  on  the  top  of  the  screw  and  levers,  to  pro- 
tect the  structure  and  the  operatives  from  the  weather. 

The  screw  was  entirely  separate  from  the  gin  house, 
and  the  lint  cotton  had  to  be  earned  in  hamper  baskets, 
from  the  lint  room  to  the  screw.     See  Fig.  12. 

For  the  purpose  of  ginning  and  packing  cotton  with 


44  COTTON  WITH  SLAVE  LABOR. 

the  above  facilities  and  appliances,  there  were  generally 
required:  Four  mules  to  operate  the  gin,  (two  at  each 
lever  under  the  gin  house);  two  drivers  under  the  gin 
house;  in  the  story  above,  a  ginner  to  stand  at  the  gin 
and  feed  the  cotton  into  it  properly;  a  ginner's  helper  to 
supply  the  cotton  to  the  ginner  at  the  gin;  a  helper  to 
push  the  lint  from  the  gin  into  the  lint  room,  and  a  man  or 
a  boy  to  remove  the  seed  from  the  floor  under  the  gin; 
two  hands  to  carry  cotton  from  the  lint  room  to  the  screw; 
two  hands  in  the  box  to  pack  the  cotton  down  to  make 
the  box  hold  a  bale;  one  or  two  mules  to  pull  the  screw 
and  one  or  two  drivers.  In  all,  eleven  hands,  and  fre- 
quently as  many  more  were  "helping"  around  the  gin 
house  and  screw  on  rainy  days.  If  there  was  a  break- 
down, most  of  the  hands  loitered  about  on  piles  of  cotton 
or  seed,  while  a  few  would  help  the  carpenter  or  black- 
smith to  repair  the  breaks.  To  gin  and  pack  two  or  three 
bales  a  day  was  fair  work  for  the  above  force.  The  bales 
were  partially  enclosed  in  jute  bagging  and  bound  with  rope. 
From  the  time  of  the  invention  of  the  gin  to  the  close 
of  the  Civil  War,  when  slavery  was  abolished,  there  was  no 
demand  for  methods  and  appliances  other  than  those 
above  described.  Steam  power  would  have  brought 
responsibility  with  no  commensurate  advantages  from  the 
planter's  point  of  view.  The  boiler  might  explode,  and  if 
it  did,  the  smallest  part  of  the  loss  would  have  been  the 
engine  and  boiler.  Two  or  more  thousand  dollars  worth 
of  negroes  might  be  killed,  and  perhaps  many  more 
wounded.  This  would  make  large  doctor  bills,  and  labor 
and  attention  to  nurse  them.  The  special  care  of  the  sick 
was  the  most  particular  personal  care  of  the  humane 
planter.  Then,  too,  a  steam  engine  would  be  getting  out 
of  order,  repairs  would  have  to  be  obtained  from  machine 
shops,  which  were  few  and  often  far  distant.  In  fact,  the 
planter  himself  would  have  to  give  it  some  attention,  even 
if  he  had  an  ordinary  overseer;  and  the  planter  had  little 
taste  for  anything  that  would  require  his  attention  except 
the  care  and  government  of  the  humanity  on  his  plantation. 


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CHAPTER  IV 

Gbe  plantation  Before  tbe  Mar. 

Any  discussion  of  Southern  plantation  conditions 
before  the  Civil  War,  must  of  necessity,  be  intimately  re- 
lated to  the  institution  of  slavery,  and  be  coupled  with  the 
study  of  the  negro  himself. 

The  Negro  Slave. 

Measured  by  Anglo-Saxon  standards,  a  low  type  of  un- 
educated negro  is  one  bundle  of  contradictions.  He  can 
sleep  more  and  get  along  with  less,  sleep,  eat  more  and  get 
along  with  less  to  eat  than  ordinary  humanity.  In  honesty 
and  dishonesty,  in  strong  affections  and  violent  bad  passions, 
in  splendid  loyalty  and  savage  disloyalty,  his  moods  often 
moving  with  rapidity  from  one  extreme  to  the  other  in 
all  these  human  motives,  he  is  governed  by  his  immediate 
surroundings  -and  influences. 

It  is  totally  at  variance  with  Anglo-Saxon  character  to 
live  in  absolute  subjection  and  yet  love  the  master.  The 
life  on  the  plantation  was  one  of  absolute  mastership  on 
one  side  and  of  absolute  subjection  on  the  other,  with  the 
easiest  sort  of  personal  intercourse  between  the  two,  and 
affection  on  both  sides. 

In  this  statement  is  contained  a  fundamental  differ- 
ence in  the  characters  of  the  white  man  and  the 
negro,  which  can  never  be  appreciated  except  by 
those  who  have  had  intimate  contact  with  the  negro  race. 
It  is  the  lack  of  appreciation  of  this  difference  which  made 
outside  Anglo-Saxon  plans  of  reconstruction  bring  such 
confusion  instead  of  order,  out  of  the  disorders  of  the 
Civil  War. 

The  white  man  loves  to  control,  and  loves  the  person 
willing  to  be  controlled  by  him.  The  negro  readily  sub- 
mits to  the  master  hand,  admires  and  even  loves  it.  Left 
to  his  own  resources  and  free  to  act  as  his  mind  or  emo- 


48        THE  PLANTATION  BEFORE  THE  WAR. 

tions  dictate,  no  man  can  foresay  what  he  is  liable  to  do. 
He  may  move  under  the  influence  of  high  motives  and 
impulses,  or  of  savage  passions.  All  this  relates  to  the 
slave  and  to  the  freedman  without  education  or  training. 

The  so-called  race  problem  is  not  cue,  of  the  relations  of  a 
single  white  race  with  a  single  negro  race,  but  rather  one  of 
a  number  of  white  races  with  a  numter  of  negro  races. 

The  negro  population  of  the  United  States  is  probably  as 
much  mixed  as  the  white  population.  Y\  he  i  the  slave  trade 
was  in  full  operation,  some  of  the  negroes  brought  over 
were  absolute  savages,  while  others  enjoyed  a  considerable 
degree  of  civilization.  The  best  and  the  worst  were  pro- 
bably 1,000  years  apart  in  civilization,  while  yet  in  their 
home  in  Africa.  The  highest  types  were  rerhans  these  from 
the  interior  of  Africa,  who  had  developed  a  fair  civilization 
and  were  seldom  enslaved.  The  lowest  type  was  undoubtedly 
the  West  Coast  Guinea  negro,  who  was  not  only  a  savage, 
but  the  lowest  type  of  Cannibal.  On  the  Red  Sea  shore, 
near  Arabia,  there  developed  tribes  cf  possibly  higher  civili- 
zation than  those  in  Central  Africa.  Amongst  the  negroes 
themselves  in  the  South,  these  differences  are  known  and 
frequently  referred  to.  The  "blue-gum  nigger,"  means  the 
descendant  of  a  west  coast  Cannibal  type,  while  "the  Dinka," 
is  the  superior  type.  Other  negroes  believe  that  the  bite 
of  a  "blue-gum  nigger"  is  deadly  poison. 

The  better  types  have  many  flue  qualities  of  character  and 
sometimes  amongst  them  are  individuals  of  rare  intellect, 
and  even  princely  characteristics  of  mind  and  manners. 
But.  as  in  India,  the  highest  of  the  princes  yield  and  defer 
to  practical  English  thought,  so  in  America,  the  African  of 
high  type  defers  to  and  promotes  the  civilization  of  the 
white  man  of  composite  Caucassian  blood,  (English,  Ger- 
man, etc.),  while  the  inferior  types  stand  in  wholesome  awe 
only  of  the  force  with  which  the  white  man  is  known  to  insist 
upon  as  punishment  for  those  who  violate  his  civilization. 

Much  the  larger  portion  of  the  negroes  caught  and 
brought  to  this  country  by  slave  traders  were  naturally  the 
inferior  types. 


THE  PLANTATION  BEFORE  THE  WAR.        49 

The  descendants  of  the  better  types  travel  most,  and  are 
servants  about  hotels  and  private  houses,  both  North  and 
South. 

The  redemption  of  the  negro  race  from  a  condition  of 
backwardness  and  unequal  development  may  be  accom- 
plished by  education.  This  is  made  to  appear  doubtful  in 
many  cases,  where  education  has  been  seen  to  emphasize  in- 
dolent or  vicious  qualities  in  many  of  them.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  are  many  examples  in  which  better  opportuni- 
ties and  education  have  brought  the  qualities  of  good  citi- 
zenship to  fair  development,  and  in  exceptional  cases  to 
remarkably  high  standards. 

Civilization  destroyed  a  large  majority  of  the  Indians.  It 
is  now  said  that  the  remnant  yet  left  is  the  civilizable  rem- 
nant. It  is  claimed  that  these  are  now  improving  in  num- 
bers and  in  qualities  of  civilization.  It  is  possible  that 
civilization  will  do  with  the  negro,  in  a  different  degree, 
what  it  did  with  the  Indian,  viz:  destroy  the  inferior  and 
uncivilizable  percentage  and  civilize  the  better  element. 

It  transpires  that  the  leaders  of  the  race  itself  seem  cap- 
able of  the  best  work  in  formulating  plans  for  the  elevation 
of  the  race  by  education.  These  have  been  happy  in  their 
judgment  of  what  sort  of  education  best  suited  the  negro 
in  his  present  conditions  and  surroundings.  These  strongly 
urge  that  the  negro  must  rise  by  degrees,  going  through 
each  condition  of  progress  already  passed  by  the  white  race : 
and  that  the  education  now  most  required  for  them  is 
that  practical  sort,  which  makes  them  artisans,  (carpenters, 
bricklayers,  blacksmiths)  and  skilled  workers  in  other 
trades,  and  better  and  more  intelligent  agriculturalists. 

The  ultimate  result  would  seem  to  rest  principally  with 
the  race  itself. 

The  planter,  living  on  his  plantation,  was  always  at 
hand  to  put  a  stop  to  any  sort  of  disturbance.  The  in- 
fluence of  the  planter's  family  was  of  greater  importance 
than  was  ever  appreciated  in  keeping  the  better  natures 
of  the  negroes  to  the  fore.  A  very  generous  and  friendly 
kindness      has      an      immense      and      far-reaching      influ- 


50  THE    PLANTATION    BEFORE    Til  K    WAR. 

ence.  The     white     boy     or     white     girl      of     slave- 

holding  families  was  to  them  something  just  a 
little  more  than  ordinary  humanity,  and  thus  they  could 
exercise  an  authority  and  an  influence  almost  incompre- 
hensible. These  peculiar  relations  were  not  without  in- 
fluence on  the  white  race.  The  control  was  not  alone 
by  force.  The  example  of  perfect  conduct  was  import- 
ant in  two  particulars.  These  were  physical  ccurage,  and 
the  keeping  of  one's  word.  The  negroes  admired  the 
man  who  was  afraid  of  nothing,  and  who  never  failed  in 
his  promises.  Therefore,  the  qualities  of  courage  and 
truthfulness  became  highly  developed;  and  to  question 
either  of  these  in  any  planter  meant  mortal  combat  or  dis- 
grace. Thus  came  the  frequency  of  the  duel  in  the  South, 
though  it  was  never  so  frequent  as  has  been  supposed. 

Many  people  who  were  opposed  to  the  institution  of 
slavery  have  been  persistent  in  representing  the  planter  as 
a  furious  fighter  or  "fire-eater."  Frequent  dueling  seemed 
to  confirm  this  reputation. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  average  planter,  while  amply  cour- 
ageous, was  the  most  amiable,  friendly,  hospitable  and  un- 
agressive  <  if  men.  He  was  slow  to  take  or  give  offense.  I  le 
never  carried  a  pistol,  or  otherwise  went  prepared  for  a 
tight.  When  he  felt  himself  offended  by  an  inferior,  he  in- 
flicted an  ordinary  chastisement,  and  it  was  dangerous  for 
the  inferior  to  resist  it.  When  his  veracity  or  courage  was 
questioned  by  an  equal,  there  was  a  well  formulated  "Code 
Duello,"  printed  in  book  form,  in  accordance  with  all  the 
regulations  (if  which,  lie  must  as  a  gentleman  proceed. 
These  required  most  ceremonial  notices  and  preparations, 
also  the  attendance  of  friends  on  each  side,  to  guarantee 
absolute  fairness.  It  required  high  character  and  courage 
to  live  under  and  up  to  the  Code. 

Slavery  and  the  habit  of  duelling  were  the  two  blots  on 
the  civilization  of  the  South.  The  former  frequently  de- 
veloped inhuman  masters,  and  the  latter  occasionally  de- 
veloped fighting  bullies — the  professional  duelists.  The 
great  majority  of  planters  were  neither  inhuman  masters  nor 


THE    PLANTATION    BEFORE    THE    WAR.  51 

professional  duelists,  but  were  essentially  the  kind  of  men 
respected  and  beloved  of  humanity. 

Among-  many  other  changes  brought  about  in  the  cotton 
producing  area  of  the  South,  is  the  total  disappearance  of 
the  sentiment  in  favor  of,  or  the  reason  for  the  tolerance  of 
the  duel.  One  of  the  most  grotesque  absurdities  of  the 
present  day  is  the  fool  who  poses  as  being  willing  to  fight  a 
duel,  laboring  under  the  delusion  that  he  is  imitating  his 
grandfather.  The  courage  of  the  best  type  of  planter  was 
never  manifested  in  common  fighting,  and  among  his  worthy 
descendants,  the  duel  is  equally  in  disrepute. 

The  idea  that  the  ante-bellum  cotton  planter  was  indolent, 
or  an  indifferent  business  man.  or  that  he  was  always  a 
spendthrift  is  totally  wrong.  On  the  contrary,  he  was  ever 
on  the  alert.  He  was  judicial  minded,  energetic,  usually 
well  educated,  always  well  trained  in  every  operation  con- 
nected with  the  production  of  standard  crops.  He  suc- 
ceeded by  the  same  means  that  are  necessary  for  success 
now,  viz.  by  better  education,  better  training,  more  energy 
and  steadiness  of  purpose,  than  the  average  of  the  people 
who  do  not  succeed  so  well. 

The  system  of  agriculture  operated  by  the  planter  was 
wonderfully  successful.  Besides  developing  the  production 
of  cotton  to  an  extent  to  give  the  world  better,  cheaper  and 
more  abundant  raw  material  for  clothing  than  ever  before 
enjoyed,  he  at  the  same  time,  and  in  addition,  produced 
more  grain  per  capita,  more  meat  per  capita,  and  more  home 
supplies,  than  the  people  of  any  other  part  of  the  United 
States.  The  methods  of  organization,  and  of  training  the 
organizations  were  unsurpassed.  Influences  adverse  to  edu- 
cation of  labor,  and  favorable  to  the  institution  of  slavery, 
ultimately  destroyed  a  system  that  was  in  other  respects 
most  excellent,  and  wonderfully  successful. 

Great  improvement  in  the  condition  of  Southern  agricul- 
ture is  being  brought  about  by  diversification  of  crops,  even 
in  sections  that  have  as  yet  no  manufacturing  population. 
It  has  been  pointed  out  that  the  ante-bellum  bouthern  planter 
of  cotton  raised  practically  all  his  supplies  at  home.     The 


52  THE    PLANTATION    BEFORE   THE    WAR. 

post-bellum  farmer  has  not  been  doing  this ;  but  he  is  coining 
more  and  more  to  it,  and  is  prospering  in  proportion.  Al- 
though population  is  largely  increased  in  each  cotton  plant- 
ing State,  none  of  them  (Texas  excluded)  are  even  now- 
raising  as  much  corn,  meat  or  wheat  as  they  did  in  i860. 

Plantation  Profits. 

The  planter  who  produced  cotton  with  slave  labor 
could  always  make  money.  Of  course,  this  varied  great- 
ly. Some  would  make  more  and  some  less,  and  some 
would  fail,  without  regard  to  the  price  of  cotton.  Even 
at  4c  a  pound,  a  planter  who  was  energetic  and  had  good 
judgment,  could  make  from  8  to  10  per  cent,  on  his  in- 
vestment. This  certainty  of  profit  was  entirely  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  support  or  living  for  all  the  humanity  on  the 
plantation  was  produced  on  the  plantation. 

The  crop  was  generally  laid  out  on  a  basis  of  25  acres  to 
one  good  hand  and  one  mule.  Of  this  land,  10  acres 
would  generally  be  put  in  cotton,  and  15  in  wheat,  corn 
and  oats.  The  most  able  bodied  men  on  the  place  were 
generally  the  plow  hands.  About  one-half  the  labor  was 
selected  for  this  purpose.  The  older  men,  the  strongest 
women  and  the  youths  on  the  place  made  another  force 
of  labor  that  did  the  hoeing,  handling  of  the  grain,  pick- 
ing the  cotton  and  all  miscellaneous  work. 

Of  course,  the  work  of  the  able  bodied  men  was  not 
confined  to  plowing.  In  season,  some  of  them  did  the 
blacksmithing,  clearing  land,  driving  wagons,  ginning 
and  hauling  cotton  to  market.  In  fact,  there  were  no 
such  formulated  divisions,  such  as  is  above  indicated,  but 
the  work  of  all  the  hands  wras  subject  to  much  vari- 
ation. In  much  of  the  work,  all  kinds  of  labor  took  some 
part;  and  in  such  work  as  hog-killin£  and  sheep-shearing, 
even  the  children  w^ould  like  to  be  about  and  take  a  hand. 

A  good  planter  could  operate  his  plantation  in  such  a 
way  as  to  have  practically  the  entire  cotton  crop  as  clear 
profit.     This  would,  of  course,  mean  that  live  stock,  grain 


THE  PLANTATION  BEFORE  THE  WAR.        53 

and  other  products  of  the  plantation, beside  cotton,  would 
be  sold  in  sufficient  quantity  to  yield  money  to  buy 
clothes,  sugar,  coffee,  molasses  and  other  necessary  fam- 
ily and  plantation  supplies  which  could  not  be  raised  on 
the  plantation. 

Extent  of  Plantations. 

Some  plantations  comprised  as  high  as  ten  to  twenty 
thousand  acres  of  land,  and  one  thousand  slaves.  These 
were  comparatively  few,  and  the  entire  investments  in 
such  a  plantation  would  have  been  about  one  million 
dollars.  On  the  other  hand,  there  were  a  great  many  in- 
stances of  small  cotton  planters  owning  ten  or  less  slaves, 
and  300  or  less  acres  of  land. 

The  capital  in  such  cases  would  not  exceed  eight  to  ten 
thousand  dollars. 

The  great  bulk  of  the  cotton  was  produced  by  planters 
who  owned  from  50  to  150  slaves  and  2,000  to  5,000  acres 
of  land.  It  was  this  great  class  that  made  their  planta- 
tion supplies  on  the  plantation,  and  made  cotton  growing 
a  great  institution. 

Taking  the  average  plantation  at  one  hundred  slaves 
and  3,000  acres  of  land,  the  equipment  would  be  as  fol- 
lows: 

25  plow  hands, 

25  miscellaneous  hands, 

50  women  and  children,  non-producers, 

25  mules, 

4  horses  for  family  and  general  use, 

600  hogs, 

25  head  cattle, 

100  sheep, 

10  goats, 

15  dogs. 
Chickens,  guineas,  peacocks,  turkeys,  geese,  ducks,  etc. 
Blacksmith   shop,   wheelwright   and   other  wood-work- 
ing shop,   20  to  2$   negro  houses,   gin  house  and   screw, 


54  THE    PLANTATION    BEFORE    THE    WAR. 

stables,  barns,  carriage  houses  and  wagon  sheds,  and  in 

many  instances,  a  grist  and  flour  mill,  and  a  store. 

Such  an  average  plantation  of  ioo  slaves  and  3,000 
acres  of  land,  with  its  equipment,  would  be  worth  on  an 
average  about  Sioo.oco.  It  would  produce  about  100 
bales  of  cotton,  besides  all  supplies.  Such  a  plantation, 
conducted  with  energy  and  good  j  idgment,  woud  easi  y 
make  $10,000  to  S20.000  a  year,  according  to  manage- 
ment and  the  price  of  cotton. 

The  query  as  to  a  man's  wealth  was  not  "how  much 
is  he  worth?"  but  "'how  many  negroes  does  he  own?" 

Some  planters  were  thrifty  and  economical,  and  grew 
richer  with  great  rapidity,  while  many  employed  oxer- 
seers  to  look  after  their  estates,  and  spent  the  incomes  in 
travel  or  local  extravagance. 

The  Plantation  Home. 

It  was  the  custom  for  the  planter  to  live  on  his  planta- 
tion. Even  those  who  traveled  much  had  a  home  on  the 
plantation,  and  spent  much  time  there.  The  maintenance 
of  the  organization  of  the  plantation  and  labor,  and  the 
control  of  the  negroes  as  slaves,  made  it  practically  ne- 
cessary for  the  planter  and  his  family  to  live  on  the  place 
Tins  left  plenty  of  rime  on  the  hands  of  each  member  of 
the  family.  In  this  condition  the  plantation  home  was 
always  a  hospitable  place.  Besides  ample  time,  the  host 
and  his  family  had  abundant  service,  horses,  vehicles,  plenty 
of  home  raised  food,  excellent  cooks,  and  plentv  of  amuse 
ment,  such  as  limiting  and  fishing  for  the  men.  and  danc- 
ing for  the  young  people.  Even  the  music  was  made  by 
a  slave  who  had  learned  the  violin.  (Negroes  were  fond  of 
music,  and  many  :>f  them  learned  to  play  different  instru- 
ments.) There  was  no  cumpulsion  in  such  cases — none 
was  ever  necessary.  The  slightest  suggestion  by  a  young 
lady  from  the  "big  house,"  would  bring  the  tender  of  ser- 
vices from  every  one  on  the  place  who  could  play  the  fid 
die.      Besides  bein"   fond  of  music,  the  neoroes  were  ex 


THE  PLANTATION  BEFORE  THE  WAR.        57 

ceedingly  fond  of  the  gayety  and  finery  of  dances  and  other 
functions.  Indeed,  whenever  the  company  and  the  home 
folks  furnished  young  people  enough  to  make  a  quad- 
rille or  Virginia  reel,  the  first  suggestion  of  the  dance 
would  be  apt  to  come  from  some  negro,  who  wished  to 
see  the  fine  people  and  dresses  in  the  rhythmic  evolutions. 
Then,  too,  fiddling  in  the  big  house  at  night 
for  the  young  white  folks,  was  an  acceptable 
excuse  for  being  late  at  work  in  the  morn- 
ing. At  all  entertainments  the  "field  hands" 
(negroes  who  had  not  access  to  the  house  as  servants  or 
otherwise,)  would  croud  around  the  windows  and  porches 
to  look  on,  as  they  were  always  welcome  to  do. 
The  pleased  expression  on  the  faces  of  all  these, 
and  many  other  evidences  showed  that,  to  them,  to  watch 
the  dancing  or  other  proceedings  was  great  entertainment . 
On  such  occasions,  it  was  not  uncommon  to  see  a  young 
lady  in  the  dance,  when  near  a  window,  divide  her  atten- 
tion and  conversation  between  the  young  man  who  was 
her  partner,  and  some  negro  woman  on  the  outside,  who 
was  one  of  her  slave  friends. 

The  publicity  of  all  plantation  life  was  training  for  the 
young  men,  and  accustomed  them  to  live  in  public  view 
as  it  were,  and  contributed  to  make  public  speakers  and 
statesmen. 

Previous  to  about  1845,  niost  of  the  negro  houses  were 
log  cabins,  and  the  houses  of  many  planters  were  also  built 
of  logs.  After  1845.  most  of  the  houses  for  both  planter 
and  slave  were  frame,  those  for  the  planter  being  usually 
large  and  pretentious,  while  those  for  the  slaves  were  of 
about  the  same  character  as  tenement  houses  built  about 
the  same  time  for  factory  operatives  in  the  North  and 
East. 

The  log  house  was  usually  covered  with  what  were  locally 
known  as  "boards."  These  were  2.\  to  3  feet  long,  and 
about  6  inches  wide.  They  were  riven  or  split  out  of  logs, 
as  shingles  are,  but  were  not  drawn  as  shingles  were  then. 


58        THE  PLANTATION  BEFORE  THE  WAR. 

(  Shingles  were  "drawn"  smooth  and  tapering  with  a  "draw- 
ing knife.")  Frame  houses  were  generally  covered  with 
shingles. 

General  Organization. 

The  average  well  regulated  plantation  was  almost  al- 
ways in  the  immediate  charge  of  the  owner,  if  the  owner 
was  a  professional  man,  lawyer,  doctor  or  preacher,  there 
was  generally  an  overseer.  Many  planters  who  were  not 
professional  men  also  had  overseers.  These  overseers  had 
general  charge  of  the  labor.  They  blew  a  horn  or  rang  a 
bell  in  the  morning  to  call  out  the  negroes  to  work,  and 
otherwise  looked  after  their  labors  in  detail.  The  pay  of 
the  overseer  was  usually  three  to  five  hundred  dollars  a 
year,  a  house  to  live  in,  a  good  horse  to  ride,  and  some 
part  of  his  living  out  of  the  products  of  the  plantation.  It 
was  he  who  flogged  the  slaves,  when  this  was  considered 
necessary. 

There  were  generally  on  every  plantation  a  carpenter 
and  millwright,  and  a  blacksmith.  Wagons  had  wood 
axles  and  were  lubricated  with  pine  tar.  This  pine  tar  was 
made  in  a  "tar  kiln."  Charcoal  was  used  in  the  smith 
shop.  This  was  made  in  a  coal  kiln.  Collars  for  mules 
were  made  of  corn  shucks  or  poplar  bark.  Hogs,  cattle, 
sheep  and  goats  to  make  the  meat  supply  were  raised  on 
the  place.  Much  cotton  and  wool  was  spun  at  home,  and 
not  a  little  also  wo,ren.  Frequently  wool  would  be  ex- 
changed with  some  factory  for  cloth. 

The  planter's  wife  would  overlook  the  weaving 
and  the  making  of  the  negroes'  clothes,  while  most  of  the 
work  was  done  by  the  negro  women. 

Planters'  wives  and  daughters  combined  in  a  curious 
way  aristocratic  ideas  and  habits  with  practical  capabili- 
ties. While,  as  a  rule,  they  rarely  worked  much,  they 
nevertheless  learned  every  domestic  operation  and 
duty,  and  could  direct  these  with  wonder- 
ful     understanding       and       efficiencv.        Practicallv      all 


c 


'- 


THE    PLANTATION    BEFORE    THE    WAR.  6 1 

ladies  learned  to  ride  horseback,  and  to  handle  horses,  nut 
only  easily,  but  so  well  as  to  make  it  a  real  pleasure.  A 
young  lady  on  a  plantation  would  think  nothing  of  having 
her  horse  saddled  and  riding  ten  miles  in  an  afternoon  to 
pay  a  visit,  riding  home  the  same  afternoon. 

Much  of  the  plantation  work  was  turned  into  a  frolic. 
In  the  autumn  when  the  corn  was  gathered,  many  plant- 
ers would  have  it  piled  on  the  ground  before  the  doors 
of  the  corn  cribs,  and  then  give  a  "corn-shucking." 
Everybody  on  the  place  would  be  at  the  shucking,  as 
would  also  negroes  from  neighboring  plantations.  Fre- 
quently many  white  people  would  be  invited,  and  while 
these  would  do  no  work,  both  whites  and  blacks  would 
have  a  big  frolic.  The  function  was  generally  on  a  moon- 
light night.  There  was  liquor,  mostly  corn  whiskey,  while 
the  shucking  was  going  on,  and  a  supper  afterwards.  Per- 
haps a  shote  or  calf  would  be  killed  and  barbecued.  One 
negro  would  be  selected  to  get  on  top  of  the  corn  pile  and 
lead  in  the  singing,  and  the  singing  was  a  sort  of  solo  re- 
frain by  this  one  leader,  and  some  chorus  answer  by  all  the 
others.  Meanwhile  the  white  folks  would  talk  politics 
and  hobnob  in  the  big  house. 

When  new  ground  was  to  be  cleared,  the  home  folks  cut 
down  the  trees,  cut  off  the  brush,  piled  it,  and  when  dry, 
burned  it;  and  then,  to  get  rid  of  the  heavy  logs,  laid  a 
plan  to  get  them  piled  up  and  burned.  Neighbors  were 
again  invited  to  help  roll  the  logs  into  piles.  This  was 
called  a  "log-rolling,"  which  was  a  daylight  function. 
The  social  features  of  liquor,  dinner  and  politics  were 
about  the  same  as  those  of  the  corn-shucking.  The 
term  "log-rolling"  has  been  adopted  as  a  political  term, 
meaning:  You  help  me.  and  I'll  help  you.  New  houses 
were  frequently  necessary  for  increasing  numbers  of  ne- 
groes. For  erecting  the  frames  of  these,  "house-raisings" 
were  similarly  given.  Amongst  the  women,  quilting  par- 
ties were  common. 

Churches  were  liberally  provided,  and  both  master  and 


62  THE    PLANTATION    BEFORE    THE    WAR. 

slave  attended  church  with  regularity.  In  the  summer, 
when  crops  were  "laid  by,"  (work  of  cultivation  finished) 
there  would  be,  before  harvest  time,  protracted  and  camp 
meetings,  which  would  be  liberally  attended  from  far  and 
near. 

Amusements. 

The  amusements  i  n  the  plantation  were  very  numerous. 
In  all  of  these,  the  negroes  always  took  an  interest,  and  in 
many  participated. 

Fox  hunting  was  very  popular.  Many  planters  kept 
fox  hounds,  some  as  many  as  25  or  30.  it  was  not  uncom- 
mon for  ladies  to  ride  after  the  hounds,  and  occasionally 
a  privileged  negro  would  also  be  allowed  to  go. 

Almost  every  planter  kept  one  or  two  pointer  or  setter 
dogs  and  hunted  partridges  or  quail.  This  was  perhaps 
the  most  standard  sport. 

Besides  the  setters,  pointers  and  fox  hounds  of  fine  breed, 
kept  by  the  planter  himself,  his  sons  and  the  negroes  gener- 
ally kept  up  a  collection  of  rabbit  dogs,  coon  dogs  and  pos- 
sum dogs. 

Fishing  was  common  and  popular  This  was  done  with 
pole  and  line  by  everybody.  The  men  and  boys,  white  and 
black,  went  seining,  gigging,  grabbling,  (hunting  fish  un- 
der stones)  and  muddying. 

Horse  racing,  chicken  fighting,  wrestling  and  boxing 
were  all  popular  and  perfectly  respectable.  These  sports 
were  conducted  with  perfect  decorum;  and  as  a  rule  there 
was  little  or  no  betting.  Betting  was  not  unusual,  how- 
ever, and  sometimes  it  would  run  high. 

House  parties  and  picnics  with  dancing  were  frequent 
amongst  the  young  white  people,  while  barbecues,  with  po- 
litical speaking  or  miscellaneous  oratory  were  indulged  in 
by  the  older  people.      The  negroes  fiddled  and  danced  much. 

The  white  boys  and  negroes  hunted  rabbits  in  day  time 
and  coons  and  opossums  at  night.  The  life  of  the  planter 
and  his  sons  was  a  hardy  one  and  they  loved  hardy  sports. 


THE    PLANTATION    BEFORE    THE    WAR.  63 

These  amusements — both  in  doors  and  out  doors — never 
interfered  with  the  duties  or  domestic  economies  of  the 
household  or  plantation. 

From  Slave  to  Freedman. 

During  the  Civil  War,  the  cotton  plantations  were 
practically  in  charge  of  the  planters'  wives,  assisted  by  a 
few  old  and  decrepit  men,  and  boys  under  16  years  of  age. 
All  other  white  people  had  gone  to  the  war.  It  is  the 
marvel  of  marvels  that  in  this  condition,  lasting  nearly 
four  years,  there  was  never  an  outbreak  nor  a  symptom 
of  discontent  among  the  slaves.  The  negro  character 
itself,  the  very  exact  and  practical  knowledge  by 
the  planters'  wives  of  the  negro  character,  and 
the  past  training  of  the  negro,  all  contributed  to  this 
result.  The  extent  of  the  trust  that  was  placed  in  the  ne- 
gro's keeping,  and  the  perfection  of  its  keeping  on  his 
part  during  the  war,  can  never  be  fully  realized  or  appre- 
ciated. 

After  the  war,  when  the  negro  became  free  and  was 
given  the  ballot,  and  when  new  dominating  forces  began 
to  appear,  the  negro  soon  developed  a  number  of  charac- 
teristics that  had  been  formerly  suppressed  or  were  latent. 
Adventurers  came  and  misled  him  in  politics;  and  while 
under  the  former  control  and  influence  he  had  been  tract- 
able and  amiable,  under  the  new  ones  he  became  turbu- 
lent and  riotous.  Under  bad  leadership,  and  with  negro 
votes  State  and  county  governments  were  set  up  which, 
became  more  corrupt  and  debauching  than  anything  that 
ever  existed  before  under  the  form  of  a  government.  A 
State  militia  was  organized,  composed  almost  entirely  of 
negroes.  White  people  were  forbidden  to  carry  arms  by 
laws  which  were  not  observed,  the  "Ku-Klux  Klan,"  which 
was  a  white  man's  protective  league,  was  formed;  and  it 
was  probably  this  organization  which  saved  civilization 
from  utter  annihilation  in  the  South  from  1867  to  1876. 


64  THE    PLANTATION    BEFORE    THE    WAR. 

White  Supremacy. 

In  1876  the  whites,  by  great  energy,  and  partly  by  force 
of  arms,  obtained  control  of  the  State  governments, 
which  were  still  under  the  control  of  the  negroes  ami 
corrupt  whites,  and  thus  ended  the  semi-anarchistic  con- 
ditions. 

From  1880  to  1900,  the  political,  social  and  industrial 
conditions  in  the  South  were  vastly  improved.  Manu- 
facturing industries  in  iron,  cotton,  cotton  oil,  lumber  and 
other  raw  materials  were  established  and  prospered,  but 
the  voting  power  of  the  ignorant  negroes  made  them 
still  a  disturbing  and  debasing  influence  in  politics. 
From  1880  to  1900,  practically  all  the  cotton  growing 
States  made  laws  withdrawing  the  right  of  suffrage  from 
the  illiterate  whites  and  negroes.  This  seems  to  be  elim- 
inating the  last  adverse  influence  exerted  by  the  black 
man  in  politics,  industrial  development  and  progress. 


CHAPTER  V. 

Gbe  preparation  of  Cotton  for  tbc  flDarfcet,  as 
flDofcnfiefc  b£  tbe  abolition  of  Slavery 

After  the  Civil  War.no  quick  changes  came  about, other 
than  proclaimed  and  legislated  changes.  The  end  of  the 
conflict  made  the  negroes  legally  free;  but  they  had  none 
of  the  habits  or  feelings  of  free  men,  and  it  took  time  for 
them  to  acquire  them.  The  skilled  laborers  amongst  them 
were  naturally  the  most  intelligent,  and  were  the  first  to 
reach  the  point  of  obtaining  definite  compensation  for 
labor. 

The  wooden  cogs  and  wallowers  of  the  gin  running  gear 
used  for  transmission  of  power  wore  rapidly  and  required 
frequent  renewal.  When  these  renewals  were  made  by 
labor  that  cost  nothing,  cogs  and  wallowers  were  better 
than  cast  bevel  wheels.  But  when  the  labor  had  to  be 
paid  for  in  money,  a  demand  grew  at  once  for  cast  bevel 
wheels.  On  to  the  larger  wheel,  sections  of  castings  were 
bolted,  making  of  it  a  large  bevel  wheel,  then  a  cast  bevel 
pinion  was  put  on  the  horizontal  shaft,  the  heavy  teeth 
meshing  properly  with  each  other.  The  application  oi 
cast  gearing  about  a  gin  house  was  probably  the  first  move 
in  the  direction  of  saving  labor. 

Labor  Saving  Devices. 

It  soon  became  difficult  on  a  farm  to  command  or  coax 
enough  negroes  together  to  gin  a  crop  of  cotton,  so  de- 
moralized had  they  grown  with  their  ideas  of  freedom. 
To  them,  freedom  was  absolution  from  work,  and  liberty 
to  overstep  all  bounds.  This  difficulty  of  obtaining  labor 
was  accentuated  by  the  advent  of  a  system  of  separate 
farming,  in  which  negroes  rented  lands  on  their  own  ac- 
count, and  only  worked  enough  to  make  themselves  a  bare 
living. 


66  PREPARATION    OF   COTTON    FOR    MARKET. 

A  spirit  of  interest  began  to  manifest  itself  amongst 
planters  in  the  introduction  of  appliances  tending  to  reduce 
the  number  of  hands  and  other  annoyances  connected  with 
the  preparation  of  cotton  for  the  market. 

Wrought  band  iron  rapidly  took  the  place  of  ropes  for 
binding  the  bales,  both  as  a  matter  of  economy  and  for 
safety  from  fire.  The  turbulent  times  growing  out  of  the 
entrance  of  the  negro  into  politics,  made  important  the 
question  of  fire  risk,  which  was  formerly  almost  nothing. 

A  mechanical  attachment  called  the  feeder,  (A  Fig.  21) 
into  which  the  seed  cotton  could  be  put  from  time  to  time, 
and  which  would,  with  proper  adjustments,  feed  the  gin, 
was  now  invented  and  much  purchased.  This  dispensed 
with  the  ginner  or  his  helper.  Co-incident  with  the 
"feeder"  came  the  "condenser,"  (G  Fig.  21)  which  was  an 
attachment  to  the  gin  to  catch  the  lint  cotton  between 
two  skeleton  wire-cloth-bound  rollers,  delivering  it  from 
the  gin  in  the  shape  of  a  continuous  "bat",  instead  of  like 
feathers  in  a  gale.   This  did  away  with  the  lint  room  hand. 

Next  came  a  compact  press  capable  of  pressing  a  bale 
by  the  power  of  two  stout  laborers  This  would  be  lo- 
cated in  the  lint  room,  or  at  some  point  outside,  where  the 
cotton  could  be  conveniently  pushed  directly  into  the 
press  from  where  the  condenser  delivered  it.  This  dis- 
pensed with  the  hands  to  carry  cotton  from  the  lint  room 
to  the  screw,  and  at=o  with  the  mules  and  drivers  which 
operated  the  screw. 

During  all  these  changes,  the  negroes  were  moving 
slowly  towards  citizenship.  The  number  of  them  owning 
mules  was  yearly  increasing,  and  the  tendency  with  the 
planter  was  to  encourage  them  to  rent  land  and  furnish 
their  own  live  stock;  even  though  purchased  on  credit 
from  the  planter  himself.  It  was  thought  that  the  feeling 
of  ownership  would  result  in  better  care  of  the  stock.  But 
this  rendered  more  difficult  the  matter  of  getting  together 
enough  stock  to  do  ginning.  Difficulties  came  also  about 
the  matter  of  keeping  up  the  repairs  about  the  gin  house. 


PREPARATION    OF   COTTON    FOR    MARKET.  6j 

When  a  planter  would  adopt  the  tenant  system — whether 
at  once,  or  gradually — then  he  would  disown  any  responsi- 
bility for  furnishing  facilities  to  tenants  to  prepare  cotton 
for  market.  Co-operative  efforts  of  the  tenants  to  keep 
up  the  gin  house  and  screw  would  fail  of  good  or  satisfac- 
tory results. 

Public  Ginnery. 

By  general  consent  it  was  determined  that  the  best  ar- 
rangement would  be  for  the  planter  toibuy  a  steam  engine, 
employ  an  engineer  and  the  necessary  force,  and  gin  for  the 
public  for  a  fixed  toll.  Sometimes  this  would  take  the  form 
of  a  traveling  outfit,  composed  of  a  portable  engine  on 
wheels,  a  gin  set  up  on  a  wagon,  and  a  hand  press  which 
could  be  quickly  put  together  on  the  ground  near  by. 
This  would  go  from  one  plantation  to  another,  stopping 
sometimes  at  the  old  gin  house,  and  sometimes  going  di- 
rect into  the  cotton  fields.    See  Fig.  18. 

These  changes  may  all  be  said  to  have  forced  themselves 
upon  the  plantation.  They  were  not  the  result  of  any  ex- 
ertion on  the  part  of  the  planter  or  the  tenant  to  find  bet- 
ter or  cheaper  methods.  Each  feature  was  introduced  as 
a  matter  of  necessity,  not  as  a  preferable  way,  but  as  an 
only  way  the  crop  could  be  prepared  for  market. 

The  planter  thought  himself  abused,  the  victim  of  in- 
ferior labor,  when  he  found  that  he  must  add  to  his  gin- 
ning facilities.  But  when  he  established  his  rights  to 
charge  a  toll,  or  other  fair  compensation  for  these  facilities, 
and  determined  to  hire  and  pay  for  the  labor  in  and  about 
the  gin  house,  then  did  he  begin  to  realize  that  he  was 
Bearing  the  end  of  one  of  his  worst  vexations.  These  in- 
dustrial changes  were  not  the  only  ones  that  were  taking 
place.  Agricultural  methods  were  being  similarly  revo- 
lutionized. The  plantation  tools  of  1870  may  be  said  to 
be  the  common  wood  plow  stock  with  a  small  variety  of 
small  iron  plow-shares,  a  common  weeding  hoe,  a  scythe, 
and  a  wagon.     On  the  same  plantation  in  1880,  one  would 


68  PREPARATION    OF   COTTON    FOR    MARKET. 

be  apt  to  find  modern  reapers,  sulky  plows,  cotton  plant- 
ers, elaborately  made  harrows,  end  like  implements. 
From  the  close  of  the  war  to  the  present  time,  the  quantity 
of  commercial  fertilizers  used,  has  increased  from  nothing 
to  enormous  proportions. 

Besides  industrial  and  agricultural  changes,  a  still 
greater  change  was  in  progress,  viz:  the  complete  political 
and  social  revolution  of  the  entire  country.  Many  a  per- 
sonal conflict  between  the  whites  and  blacks,  reported  as 
a  Ku-Klux  or  political  row,  was  the  result  of  honest  dif- 
ferences between  employer  and  employe,  upon  unsettled 
business  questions,  aggravated  by  political  agencies  and 
prejudices.  The  wonder  is,  that  where  such  vast  changes 
were  transpiring,  the  friction  of  the  changes  caused  no 
more  extensive  trouble,  plenty  though  there  was. 

After  some  experience  with  steam  power,  its  applica- 
tion to  the  cotton  press,  as  well  as  to  the  gin,  became 
common,  and  from  a  source  of  expense,  trouble  and  worry, 
ginning  quickly  became  a  source  of  satisfaction  and  prorti. 
This  was  effected  by  steam  power,  improved  facilities,  and 
the  ordinary  application  of  the  principle  of  compensation 
tor  value  received. 

The  question  of  ginning  began  now  to  receive  much 
intelligent  thought.  A  good  steam  ginnery  came  to  be 
as  much  a  standard  property  as  a  mill  for  grinding  corn 
or  flour.  Whoever  could  attract  the  most  public  custom, 
gin  the  cheapest,  and  give  the  best  satisfaction,  as  to  ap- 
pearance of  lint  produced  out  of  the  same  quality  of  cot- 
ton, could  make  the  most  money. 

Following  these  adaptations  were  well  designed  modern 
steam  ginneries,  well  equipped  with  labor  saving  devices 
and  appliances. 

Fig.  19  shows  a  brick  ginnery  with  spiked  belt  elevators 
for  handling  seed  cotton.  This  was  well  equipped  with 
overhead  water  tank,  hose  and  automatic  sprinklers  for 
fire  protection. 

About  1885  to  1890  exhaust  suction  fans  began  to  ap- 


Fig.  19. 
[mproved  Ginnery 


JO  PREPARATION    OF    COTTON    FOR    MARKET. 

pear,  with  which  seed  cotton  could  be  unloaded  from  the 
wagon  through  a  pipe  or  flue  and  discharged  into  the  gin 
feeder,  or  into  bins  partitioned  off  in  the  gin  house.  Or, 
if  it  was  desirable,  to  hold  seed  cotton  in  storage,  it  was 
often  done  in  small  storage  rooms,  built  apart  from  the  gin 
house  proper.  When  desired,  this  cotton  would  be  fed 
to  the  gins  direct  from  this  outer  house,  or  from  a  wagon, 
through  a  flue  connected  with  this  exhaust  fan.  See  Figs. 
25  and  27.  For  disposing  of  the  seed  as  they  come  from 
the  gin,  spiral  steel  conveyors  were  brought  into  use,  ar- 
ranged to  discharge  the  seed  through  an  opening  in  the 
bottom  of  them,  or  into  a  customer's  wagon  outside  of  the 
building. 

The  seed,  not  needed  for  replanting,  were  formerly 
thrown  out  and  allowed  to  rot  and  were  then  used  as  a 
fertilizer.  They  rapidly  came  to  be  sold  to  the  cotton 
seed  oil  mills  at  good  prices;  others  were  cut  up  in  suitable 
mills,  to  increase  their  fertilizing  values,  and  thus  they 
have  assumed  the  position  of  a  legitimate  marketable  pro- 
duct of  cotton  raising. 

The  Problem  of  Baling. 

The  most  perplexing  problem  now  before  those  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  of  improved  machinery  for  the  prepa- 
ration of  cotton  for  the  market  is  the  question  of  baling  it. 
Immense  progress  has  been  made  in  the  construction  and 
improvement  of  railroad  facilities  in  the  South.  The 
very  long  distances  it  was  formerly  necessary  to  haul  cot- 
ton to  reach  a  market,  no  longer  exist,  and  the  construc- 
tion of  new  lines  is  daily  decreasing  those  distances.  The 
product  of  large  plantations  is  no  longer  hauled  in  ten 
bale  loads  behind  6-mule  teams  accompanied  by  a  surplus 
force  of  negroes  to  handle  the  500  pound  bales.  The 
plantations  are  cut  up  and  divided.  The  business  of  the 
tenants  is  separate  now  and  distinct,  whether  on  the  same 
plantation  or  not.  Each  tenant  must  market  his  own 
few  bales  in  his  one-  or  two-horse  wagon.     It  would  be 


PREPARATION   OF   COTTON    FOR    MARKET.  J I 

a  matter  of  importance  to  many  farmers  if  the  bale  was  of 
a  size  and  weight  that  one  man  could  conveniently  handle. 
The  owners  of  public  gins  feel,  also,  the  need  of  improve- 
ment in  the  matter  of  both  the  press  and  bale. 

The  operation  of  handling  the  cotton  to  get  it  in  the 
press  box;  the  necessity  still  existing  for  one  or  two  men 
(or  a  complicated  steam  tramper)  to  tramp  it 
in  order  to  get  a  good  bale;  the  size  of 
the  bale;  the  fact  that  pressing  is  a  periodic, 
and  not  a  continuous  operation,  and  the  inadequate  and 
incomplete  covering,  are  all  objectionable  from  every  point 
of  view.  Continuous  presses,  such  as  are  used  for  hay, 
have  been  used,  making  smaller  and  very  desirable  shaped 
bales,  but  the  commerce  of  the  country  may  be  said  to  be 
based  on  the  old  form.  Cotton  is  stored,  shipped  and  sold 
on  commission  for  so  much  a  bale;  and  to  change  the  size 
or  shape  is  to  confuse  business  in  all  these  things.  One 
advantage  of  these  small  bales  is  that  the  press  is 
.powerful  enough  to  make  them  sufficiently  compact 
for  export,  whereas,  ordinary  plantation  or  ginnery  bales 
have  to  be  repressed  in  very  heavy  machines  (called  coin- 
presses)  at  central  points  and  ports. 

Other  ginnery  presses  have  been  devised  to  make  com- 
pressed bales.  One  method  is  by  folding  a  compressed  lap 
of  cotton  in  layers,  and  then  pressing  the  bale.  Another 
is  by  tightly  rolling  up  a  compressed  lap  into  a  cylindrical 
bale.  Another  is  by  spirally  winding  under  pressure,  and 
compressing  cotton  into  cylindrical  bale..  The  most 
modern  of  these  ginnery  presses  are  designed  to  make 
bales  as  compact,  and  otherwise  even  more  suitable  for 
commerce,  than  the  enormous  and  cumbrous  compress 
plants  heretofore  standing  and  operating  between  the 
ginnery  and  export  markets. 


CHAPTER.  VI. 

Gbe  m>o£>crn  Cotton  6in,  press  ani>  (Sinner^. 

The  roller  gin  for  separating  lint  from  seed  in  Sea  Island 
and  other  black  seed  cotton,  is  of  very  ancient  origin. 
This  machine  is  not  well  adapted  for  ginning  the  upland 
cotton  of  the  United  States. 

The  Roller  Gin. 

Fig.  20  shows  a  cross  section  of  a  common  form  of  roller 
gin. 

Cotton  is  put  into  hopper  A. 

It  is  pushed  forward  by  the  reciprocal  motion  of  feeder 
B,  against  leather  covered  roll  C. 

Shover  B  presses  the  cotton  against  the  leather  covered 
roll  which  draws  the  fibre  under  the  stationary  knife  E. 

Beater  knife  D,  in  conjunction  with  stationary  knife  E, 
beats  the  seeds  free  from  lint. 

Seed  fall  through  grid  F. 

Lint  adheres  to  leather  covered  roll  and  passes  around 
with  it  until  it  is  cleared  by  clearer  bar  G. 

There  are  several  improved  forms  of  roller  gins,  mostly 
working  on  the  same  principle. 

The  perfection  of  the  roller  gin  has  been  brought  about 
principally  in  England,  for  use  in  India  and  Egypt.  Many 
of  these  gins  have  been  brought  to  the  United  States,  <or 
use  in  the  Sea  Island  cotton  regions,  and  some  few  are 
now  being  introduced  for  long  staple  semi-upland  cotton 
in  the  Mississippi  Valley.  A  limited  business  is  clone  in 
building  these  gins  in  the  United  States,  but  the  gin  busi- 
ness of  the  country  is  in  saw  gins. 

The  Saw  Gin. 

The  original  principles  of  the  saw  gin  as  patented  by 
Whitney  and  Holmes  remain  to  the  present  day  the  domi- 
nant features  of  the  most  modern  cotton  gin. 


Fig.  20.       Roller  Gin. 


74  MODERN    COTTON    GIN,  PRESS  AND  GINNERY. 

The  most  important  advances  in  cotton  ginning  ma- 
chinery for  the  past  hundred  years  consist  in  modes  and 
material  of  construction;  in  the  manner  of  applying  the 
driving  power,  and  in  accessory  appliances  for  feeding 
seed  cotton  to  the  gin,  and  taking  the  products  away. 

The  frame  and  most  of  the  other  parts  of  the  gin  were 
formerly  made  of  wood,  while  now,  the  main  parts  are  all 
of  iron  or  steel.  The  original  conception  of  the  brush 
remains  nearly  the  same.  It  formerly  consisted  of  four 
cross  arms,  studded  with  bristles,  while  now  it  is  a  hollow 
wooden  cylinder  carrying  25  to  35  rows  of  bristles. 

Fig.  21  is  a  section  showing  the  principal  working  parts 
of  the  gin  of  to-day. 

Saw  Gin,   Fig.  21,   Lettering. 

A — Seed  cotton  feeder. 

B — Revolving  distributor. 

C — Interior  of  breast. 

D — Sawr  cylinder. 

E — Brush. 

F — Flue  to  condenser. 

G — Condenser. 


Fig.  21. 

Section  of  Saw  Gin. 


76  MODERN    COTTON    GIN,  PRESS  AND  GINNERY. 

Process. 

The  feeder  A  may  be  tilled  with  seed  cotton.  It  has 
means  of  regulation,  and  it  will  feed  it  with  proper  speed 
to  the  gin.  The  cotton  in  the  space  C  is  acted  on  by  the 
saws,  which  pull  off  the  lint  cotton  and  carry  it  through 
the  spaces  between  the  ribs  I\i,  while  the  seed,  which  can- 
not pass  through,  fall  out  in  the  front.  The  brush  E  clears 
lint  cotton  from  the  teeth  of  the  saws  and  blows  it  through 
the  flue  F  against  the  perforated  drum  of  the  condenser. 
The  air  passes  through  the  perforations  and  the  lint  is  de- 
livered on  the  outside  of  the  condenser  in  a  thick  compact 
sheet. 

The  pull  of  the  saw  teeth  on  the  mass  of  cotton  in  the 
breast,  causes  it  to  revolve  in  the  breast  in  a  direction  op- 
posite to  the  saws.  This  prevents  the  saws  from  exerting 
a  too  sudden  pull  on  the  fibres,  and  it  also  serves  the  pur- 
pose of  bringing  fresh  lots  of  cotton  into  contact  with  the 
teeth.  It  is  important  to  have  the  breast  so  shaped  that 
this  cotton  may  revolve  with  the  least  friction.  There 
have  been  some  patents  granted  on  various  anti-friction 
devices,  for  the  breast,  such  as  rollers  in  the  front,  and  re- 
volving heads  at  the  two  ends  of  the  breast.  The  latter 
has  proven  to  be  of  permanent  merit 

In  the  gin  invented  by  Whitney  it  was  necessary  that 
the  operation  of  ginning  should  be  intermittent,  ginning 
one  breast  full  at  a  time,  and  then  letting  out  the  seed.  It 
transpired,  however,  that  when  Holmes  constructed  a  gin 
with  saws,  the  form  of  breast  was  improved;  it  could  make 
and  carry  a  revolving  roll  of  cotton.  The  breast  could  be 
left  a  little  open  at  the  bottom  and,  when  the  seeds  were 
sufficiently  cleared  of  lint  by  the  saws,  they  would  drop 
loose  from  the  roll,  having  no  longer  lint  enough  to  keep 
themselves  engaged  in  the  roll. 

The  Holmes  gin  works  continuously,  the  seed  cotton  be- 
ing fed  to  it  evenly,  while  the  seed  drops  out  as  the  roll 
of  cotton  turns  in  the  breast. 


MODERN    COTTON    GIN,  PRESS  AND  GINNERY.  77 

Fig.  22  is  a  general  perspective  view  of  the  Holmes  saw 
Sfin  with  feeder  and  condenser. 


Fig.  22.      Perspective  of  Saw  Gin. 


Figs.  2\  and  22  exhibit  practically  the  same  gin  as  was 
used  in  horse  power  gin  houses  shown  in  Fig.  12,  except 
that  feeder  and  condenser  are  added. 

In  Fig.  12  the  attendant  must  remain  constantly  at  the 
gin  tO'  evenly  feed  the  cotton  to  it. 

A  gin  without  a  condenser  blows  the  loose,  fluffy  cotton 
into  a  separate  room,  from  which  it  must  be  carried  out  in 
baskets  to  the  press.  The  addition  of  the  condenser,  as 
in  Figs.  21  and  22,  greatly  reduces  the  danger  from  fire, 
and  enables  the  machinery  to  be  more  compactly  arranged 

Huller  Gin. 

In  some  sections  of  the  country  where  the  cotton  plant 
grows  very  large  and  thick,  and  ripens  fast,  the  cotton 
pickers  are  not  careful  in  picking  out  the  locks  of  cotton, 
but  mix  with  the  cotton  some  of  the  dried  bolls,  or  cells 
in 'which  it  grows.  These  are  locally  called  "hulls," 
(though  the  term  is  apt  to  be  confused  with  cotton  seed 
hulls,  a  product  of  the  oil  mill).  A  special  gin  has  been 
designed  to  remove  these  hulls  from  the  seed  cotton,  at 


78 


MODERN    COTTON  GIN,  PRESS  AND  GINNERY. 


the  same  time  that  the  seed  are  removed.     This  is  known 
as  a  "huller  gin". 


Fig.  23.     Huller  Gin. 


Fig.  2$  is  a  section,  showing  the  general  construction  of 
the  huller  gin.  The  cotton  is  fed  into  an  outer  breast,  at 
the  bottom  of  which  is  a  revolving  spiked  roller  which 
combs  out  the  hulls,  as  the  saws  draw  the  cotton  up  into 
the  main  or  inner  breast.  From  the  manner  in  which  the 
cotton  gets  into  the  breast,  this  gin  is  also  known  as  an 
"under-feed  gin." 


MODERN    COTTON  GIN,  PRESS  AND  GINNERY.  79 

riodifications  of  Gins. 

One  maker  has  matle  a  gin  in  which  the  cotton  was  fed 
into  the  end  of  breast  and  the  roll  forced  endwise  through 
the  breast,  the  cleaned  seed  coming  out  at  the  other  end 
A  linter  for  oil  mills  has  been  made  under  this  same  plan. 

One  maker  has  made  a  gin  with  sectional  ribs;  that  is, 
with  ribs  cut  in  two  pieces,  the  cut  being  about  where  the 
teeth  of  the  saws  pass  through  the  ribs  and  out  of  the  breast 
box.  The  size  of  the  gap  must,  of  course,  be  less  than  the 
diameter  of  a  cotton  seed. 

One  maker  has  made  a  gin  without  a  brush,  using  a  suc- 
tion fan  to  clear  the  saws. 

Numerous  other  special  features  have  been  tried,  but 
none  of  these  various  modifications  have  had  any  commercial 
success. 

Rating. 

All  the  gins  are  named  and  rated  by  their  number  of 
saws.  The  early  gins  run  by  horse  power  had  45  saws. 
As  the  mechanical  work  on  the  gins  became  more  perfect, 
and  as  steam  came  to  be  applied  to  driving  gins,  it  was 
found  that  they  could  be  made  to  advantage  with  more 
saws,  so  that  60-,  70-  and  80-saw  gins  became  common. 
The  most  popular  size  gin  at  the  present  time  is  the  70- 
saw. 

Gins  are  known  as  right  or  left  hand,  according  as  the 
driving  pulley  is  on  the  right  or  left  hand  of  the  machine 
when  standing  in  front,  where  the  cotton  is  fed.  Most 
gins  have  their  brushes  driven  by  a  belt  from  the  saw  shaft, 
at  the  opposite  end  from  the  main  drive.  There  is  an- 
other method,  however,  in  which  the  entire  mechanism  is 
driven  with  the  main  belt  from  a  line  shaft  underneath,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  24. 

Speeds. 

The  speed  of  old  horse  power  gins  was  200  to  250  revo- 
lutions per  minute,  according  as  the  mules  or  horses  were 
driven  slow  or  fast.      Power  gins  are  speeded  faster,  even 


Fig.  24. 
Gin  Driven  from  Below. 


MODERN    COTTON  GIN,  PRESS  AND  GINNERY.  8 1 

up  to  500  revolutions  per  minute,  for  the  sake  of  greater 
production.  The  quality  of  lint  cotton  produced  is  greatly 
impaired  by  high  speed.  The  action  of  saw  teeth  at  high 
speed  tends  to  cut  the  fibres.  The  fibres  are  sometimes 
cut  at  low  speeds,  by  improper  attention  to  the  gin.  It 
the  roll  of  seed  cotton  becomes  obstructed,  and  fails  to 
properly  revolve  in  the  breast,  the  roll  "breaks"':  the  saws 
continue  to  cut  through  the  cotton  in  the  same  place  and 
the  lint  is  said  to  be  "gin-cut."  A  newly  sharpened  gin 
will  also  sometimes  cut  the  fibres.  The  remedy  for  this 
is  to  fill  the  breast  with  seed,  close  it  up,  so  they  will  not 
fall  out,  put  in  a  quantity  of  sand  and  run  the  gin  until  the 
sharp  edges  have  been  ground  smooth. 

Wet  cotton  often  gins  badly  by  gumming  the  saws  and 
by  choking  and  causing  fibres  to  be  cut.  Sometimes  a 
small  quantity  of  kerosene  oil  is  poured  in  the  breast  with 
the  wet  cotton,  to  prevent  the  gumming.  It  is  necessary 
in  any  case  when  ginning  damp  cotton,  to  occasionally 
stop  the  gin  and  clean  off  the  saws. 

Cotton  Handling  Devices. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  features  in  the  advance  of 
ginning  machinery  is  the  means  successively  adopted  for 
unloading  the  seed  cotton  from  the  wagons  of  the  planters 
and  storing  it  to  wait  for  the  gin,  or  conveying  it  directly 
to  the  gins. 

In  the  old  days,  when  each  planter  had  his 
own       gin       house,      with      one       gin,       it  was      a 

small  matter  for  his  numerous  slaves  to  carry 
his  seed  cotton  in  baskets  up  to  the  gin  on  the  second 
floor.  But  when  the  ginnery  became  a  public  institution, 
with  many  gins,  handling  ten  to  fifty  bales  of  lint  cotton 
per  day,  the  subject  of  getting  the  seed  cotton  unloaded 
from  wagons  and  delivered  to  the  gin,  commenced  to  re- 
ceive serious  attention.  Among  the  first  devices  used  for 
this  purpose,  was  an  endless  belt,  corning  spikes  to  pick 


82 


-MODERN    COTTON    GIN,  PRESS  AND  GINNERY. 


up  and  elevate  the  cotton  in  a  manner  similar  to  grain 
elevators,  with  cups  on  belt. 

Fig.  19  shows  a  gin  house  equipped  with  this  style  of 
elevating  machinery.  This  method  has  now  been  super- 
seded by  pneumatic  systems,  in  which  a  large  suction  fan 
operates  on  12  inch  galvanized  iron  pipes,  so  arranged  as 


wmmwM^mmmmm. 


Fig.   2$.     Improved  Ginnery 


to  suck  the  seed  cotton  directly  from  the  wagons  and  de- 
liver it  to  the  gins  or  to  storage  bins.  Figs.  25  and  26 
and  2/  exhibit  some  forms  of  this  device. 

One  of  the  peculiarities  of  all  the  industries  relying  upon 
crude  cotton  as  a  raw  material,  is  that  the  entire  business 
for  the  year  must  be  crowded  into  the  short  space  of  time 
during  which  the  cotton  is  being  harvested.  This  pecu- 
liarity becomes  more  marked,  as  the  business  approaches 


MODERN    COTTON    GIN,  PRESS  AND  GINNERY.  85 

nearer  to  the  cotton  plant  itself.  It  reaches  the  limit  in 
the  matter  of  harvesting  or  "picking,"  so  that  all  the  labor 
of  picking  must  necessarily  be  done  as  fast  as  the  cotton 
matures.  Ginning  is  but  one  degree  removed  from  this; 
and,  while  a  small  amount  of  storage  is  possible  on  the  plan- 
tation, yet  from  its  great  bulk  this  is  unhandy,  and  the  gen- 
eral practice  is  to  have  the  cotton  ginned  as  fast  as  picked. 
Thus  it  happens  that  a  public  ginnery  must  be  equipped 
to  handle  large  quantities  of  cotton  »at  a  time,  during  the 
picking  season  of  three  or  four  months,  notwithstanding 
it  must  lie  idle  most  of  the  other  months  of  the  year.  In 
order  to,  in  some  measure,  distribute  the  heavy  press  of 
business  on  some  days,  most  ginneries  have  storage  bins, 
capable  of  holding  one  to  three  bales  of  seed  cotton  in  each 
bin.  ( This  cotton  is  of  course  not  in  bales,  but  is  usually 
discussed  and  measured  in  terms  of  the  lint  cotton  it  will 
produce.) 

Fig.  27  shows  one  arrangement  of  storage  bins.  The 
suction  fan  can  take  cotton  from  a  wagon  and  deliver  it 
into  any  desired  bin;  or  it  may  take  it  from  any  desired  bin 
and  deliver  it  to  the  gins. 

The  planter's  wagon  is  usually  arranged  to  hold  one 
bale  of  seed  cotton.  He  can  drive  under  a  suction  spout 
and  discharge  his  load  in  five  to  ten  minutes.  At  this 
rate,  about  six  bales  per  hour,  or  60  to  70  bales  per  day, 
may  be  handled  with  one  suction  pipe.  The  average 
ginnery  in  the  Southeastern  United  States  has  one  suc- 
tion pipe  and  four  to  six  70-saw  gins,  which,  when  in 
good  order,  and  running  constantly,  will  gin  ten  to 
twelve  bales  per  day  each.  There  are  many  ginneries  in 
Texas  equipped  to  gin  100  to  200  bales  per  day.  Fig.  28 
shows  such  a  ginnery  in  operation. 

The  suction  fans  are  arranged  to  deliver  the  cotton,  and 
distribute  it  to  the  gins  in  a  variety  of  ways,  one  of  the 
most  common  being  by  means  of  an  endless  belt,  traveling 
horizontally  in  a  trough  over  the  feeders  By  this  means 
several  gins  may  be  put   to  work  on  one  lot   of  cotton 


MODERN    COTTON  GIN,  PRESS  AND  GINNERY.  89 

at  once,  so  that  the  customer  usually  has  but  a  few  min- 
utes to  wait  for  the  ginning  of  his  load  of  cotton. 

The  seed  from  the  gins  are  sometimes  removed  by 
spiral  conveyors,  but  more  often  by  air  blasts  or  suctions. 
They  are  usually  deposited  in  an  elevated  bin,  so  the  cus- 
tomer may  drive  under  it  and  receive  the  seed  by  gravity. 
Often  the  seed  are  sold  to  the  ginner,  who  may  be  the 
purchasing  agent  for  an  oil  mill,  or  who  may  have  an  oil 
mill  in  connection  with  his  ginnery. 

The  practice  of  handling  seed  by  air  blast  is  not  to  be  gen- 
erally recommended.  In  the  first  place,  it  breaks  the  seed 
badly,  in  turning  corners  and  otherwise.  Besides  this  the 
blast  fills  the  seed  houses  with  dust  and  lint. 

The  system  of  running  a  whole  battery  of  gins  on  the 
same  lot  of  cotton  at  once,  led  to  the  adoption  of  a  de- 
sign for  delivering  the  cotton  from  all  the  gins  into 
a  single  condenser,  instead  of  individual  con- 
densers, as  formerly  This  effected  a  saving  of  labor, 
and  enabled  the  cotton  to  be  more  rapidly  delivered  to 
the  press.  Fig.  26  shows  a  ginnery  with  several  gins 
delivering  into  the  same  condenser.  The  air  created  by 
the  numerous  gin  brushes,  is  discharged  from  the  con- 
denser through  a  large  galvanized  iron  pipe  seen  extend- 
ing through  the  roof. 

The  condenser  delivers  its  thick  bat  of  cotton  directly 
into  the  press,  into  which  it  is  sometimes  tramped  down 
by  the  weight  of  one  or  two  men.  It  is  more  usually, 
however,  tramped  by  means  of  a  "steam  tramper,"  which 
is  a  long  steam  cylinder,  arranged  directly  over  the  press, 
which  is,  from  time  to  time,  made  to  operate  a  platen  just 
fitting  the  press  box,  thus  crowding  enough  cotton  into 
the  box  for  the  principal  mechanism  to  press  into  a  com- 
pact bale  of  about  500  pounds. 

Size  and  Shape  of  Bale. 

The  size  and  shape  of  the  bale  has  passed  through  many 
changes,  though  varying  but  little  from  the  average  ?ize 


90  MODERN    COTTON  GIN,  PRESS  AND  GINNERY. 

of  58  inches  long,  30  inches  thick  and  42  to  46  inches  wide. 
This  last  dimension  is  the  subject  of  the  greatest  variation 
because  this  is  determined  by  the  amount  of  cotton  put 
into  the  press,  and  by  the  hardness  with  which  it  is  packed. 
Within  the  last  few  years,  most  ginners  have  united  upon 
a  standard  for  two  dimensions,  namely,  54  inches  long 
and  24  inches  thick. 

Designs  of  Presses. 

The  mechanism  for  operating  the  cotton  press  has  been, 
and  is,  of  divers  kinds.  The  first  press  of  any  general 
adoption  was  the  large  wooden  screw,  set  up  outside,  and 
turned  by  a  horse  or  mule,  as  variously  shown  in  Figs.  12, 
16,  29.  Afterwards,  the  same  arrangement  was 
adopted,  using  an  iron  screw  in  place  of  wood,  with  the 
result  of  greatly  reducing  the  size.  At  a  later  date  the 
screw  was  arranged  with  clutches  and  gearing,  so  that  it 
could  be  driven  by  a  belt  from  steam  or  water  power. 
One  of  these  presses  is  exhibited  in  Fig.  30. 

Presses  are  also  actuated  by  hydraulic  power.  These 
have  a  vertical  cylinder  and  plunger,  about  10  inches 
in  diameter,  and  of  a  length  equal  to  the  travel  of  the 
press,  which  is  usually  about  seven  feet.  The  cylinder 
is  under  the  press  box  and  packs  up.  A  hydraulic  pump 
forces  water  or  oil  under  the  plunger  at  about  600  pounds 
pressure  per  square  inch  on  the  plunger.  This  makes  a 
total  pressure  on  the  bale  of  about  47,000  pounds. 

Some  presses  are  actuated  by  direct  steam  presssure.  as 
shown  in  Fig.  31.  These  have  a  vertical  steam  cylinder 
and  piston,  about  30  inches  in  diameter,  under  the  press 
box.  Steam  is  admitted  at  boiler  pressure  of  70  to  100 
pounds  per  square  inch.  This  gives  a  total  pressure  on 
the  bale  of  50,000  to  70,000  pounds.  If  the  bale  is  of 
the  standard  size,  24x54  inches,  this  is  equal  to  40  to  50 
pounds  per  square  inch  on  the  bale.  This  is  the  amount 
necessary  to  make  a  bale  of  the  average  density  of  14 
pounds  per  cubic  foot,  as  it  leaves  the  gin  house. 


MODERN    COTTON    GIN,  PRESS  AND  GINNERY.  93 

Nearly  all  forms  of  commercial  presses  may  be  ar- 
ranged to  pack  up  or  down,  to  suit  the  convenience  of  the 
gin  house.  The  press  shown  in  Fig.  26  is  an  up-packing 
press.  It  shows  one  of  the  latest  forms,  known  as  the 
''revolving  box  press."  This  press  has  two  distinct  cotton 
boxes,  revolving  around  a  common  centre,  so  that  while 
a  bale  is  being  packed,  and  secured  with  ties  in  one  box. 
the  large  condenser  may  be  delivering  its  cotton  into  the 
other,  so  that  the  operation  of  ginning  and  packing  are 
very  nearly  continuous. 

flodern  Ginnery. 

Fig.  26  shows  the  most  advanced  design  of  ginnery 
now  in  use  in  the  Southeast  for  turning  out  the  so-called 
square  bale.  To  drive  the  six  gins  of  70  saws  each,  with 
the  press  and  the  suction  apparatus,  requires  about  80 
horse  power,  and  will  gin  60  to  70  bales  of  cotton  per  day. 
It  is  a  model  of  convenience,  but  leaves  much  to  be  de- 
sired from  the  standpoint  of  fire  risk  and  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  mill  engineer.  The  building  should  be  of 
brick,  and  should  be  of  the  standard  factory  or  slow-burn- 
ing construction.  Ther.  should  be  some  provision  for  dis- 
posing of  the  great  volumes  of  dust  and  lint  laden  air  de- 
livered from  the  suction  fans.  As  it  is,  this  air  fills  the 
surrounding  country  with  lint  and  dust.  The  fans  should 
be  arranged  to  discharge  into  a  fire-proof  dust  room  of 
ample  capacity  to  allow  it  to  settle  and  purify,  before 
emerging  from  a  tall  brick  flue.  There  are  also  other 
methods  of  disposing  of  the  dust.  It  would  be  better  to 
have  all  the  machines  consecutively  arranged  on  one  floor, 
and  driven  from  overhead  shafting.  The  storage  bins  for 
seed  cotton  should  be  separated  by  brick  walls,  and  the 
whole  plant  should  have  ample  fire  protection  apparatus. 
Arranged  in  this  way  the  insurance  rates  would  not  ex- 
ceed half  of  one  per  cent,  per  annum,  whereas  they  now 
range  from  4  to  8  per  cent. 

While  the  various  machines  entering  into  the  organiza- 


94  MODERN    COTTON    GIN,  PRESS  AND  GINNERY. 

tion  of  a  ginnery  have  been  very  much  improved  by  in- 
vention and  design,  the  old  traditions  of  having  one  story 
below  to  accommodate  the  running  gear  or  driv- 
ing appliances,  are  still  preserved.  This  makes  much 
waste  room,  and  materially  increases  the  tire  risk.  There 
would  seem  to  be  room  for  improvement  in  modifying 
the  forms  of  some  few  of  the  machines,  so  that  there  could 
be  an  organization  of  machinery  arranged  on  one  floor 
of  a  single  story  building,  as  is  the  case  with  cotton  mill 
machinery.  Looking  to  the  accomplishment  of  the  im- 
proved organization  of  the  machinery  in  a  ginning  plant, 
it  is  desirable  to  have  a  press  that  would  stand  on  the 
floor  and  have  its  parts  accessible  to  a  man  standing  on  the 
same  floor,  and  make  a  bale  of  sufficient  density  for  ex- 
port. The  handling  machinery  and  condenser  should  also 
stand  upon  the  floor  in  a  similar  manner. 

In  the  best  of  the  so-called  square  bale  presses,  the  bales 
delivered  are  far  from  satisfactory.       They  are  not  dense 
enough,  the  bagging  does  not  entirely  cover  the  cotton, 
and  they  are  not  sufficiently  uniform  in  size  and  weight. 

Compress. 

The  density  of  cotton  bales  is  increased  by  the  "com- 
press," which  is  a  very  heavy  special  press,  costing  about 
$40,000.  It  is  usually  operated  in  seaport  cities  and  in 
railroad  centres  to  save  space  in  transportation.  These 
are  usually  down-packing  presses  made  of  heavy  iron,  ana 
using  direct  steam  pressure.  The  steam  cylinders  are  80 
to  90  inches  in  diameter,  and  they  use  steam  at  100  pounds 
pressure.  This  exerts  a  total  pressure  of  500,000  to 
600,000  pounds,  or  about  400  pounds  per  square  inch  on 
the  bale.  This  reduces  the  width  of  the  bale  to  about  20 
inches,  and  makes  it  20x24x54,  with  a  density  of  about  30 
pounds  per  cubic  foot.  Fig  32  shows  a  general  view  of  one 
form  of  press.  This  press  has  knuckle  joints  to  increase  the 
force  of  the  steam. 


Fig.  30. 
Modern  Screw  Cotton  Press. 


Fig.  31. 
Steam  Cotton  Press. 


98  MODERN    COTTON    GIN,  PRESS  AND  GINNERY. 

Ginnery  Compress. 

Within  the  past  ten  ytars  there  has  been  much  new  work 
done  in  trying-  to  produce  a  bale  at  the  gin  house  that 
would  have  sufficient  density  for  export,  and  also  be  com- 
pletely covered  \Vith  better  material  than  the  coarse  jute 
bagging  now  in  common  use. 

Ginnery  Compress  to  Make  Square  Bales,  100  Pounds. 

Fig.  33  shows  a  press  that  was  made  the  basis  of  the 
first  effort  to  revise  the  shape  and  weight  of  the  bale,  and 
compress  it  at  the  ginnery.  This  was  about  1880.  This 
works  somewhat  on  the  order  of  a  common  hay  press. 
When  this  effort  was  made,  neither  the  commercial 
nor  industrial  conditions  were  favorable  to  make  its  in- 
troduction practicable.  Transportation  charges,  rents, 
ginning  charges,  commercial  compensations,  commis- 
sions and  other  transactions  in  cotton  were  to  a  very  large 
extent  rated  per  1  ale- — the  bale  being  the  old  standard  450 
to  500  pound  plantation  bale.  The  proposed  press  made 
die  new  bale  aoout  18  inches  square,  weighing 
about  100  pounds,  and  having  a  density  cf  about 
30  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot.  This  is  about  the  usual  den- 
sity of  the  old  standard  bales  after  being  compressed.  It 
was  proposed  to  bind  these  with  wire  as  a  hay  bale  is 
bound,  and  then  to  slip  them  into  a  canvass  sack,  which 
could  be  returned  to  the  ginner  by  the  consumer  of  the 
cotton.  This  press,  the  new  style  of  the  bale  and  its  cov- 
ering commended  itself  to  all  intelligent  people  who  were 
connected  in  any  way  with  the  cotton  industry.  But 
the  difficulties  of  introducing  it  to  supplant  the  old  form 
bale,  with  the  usages  associated  with  it,  were  as  great  as 
the  difficult}'  would  be  of  introducing  the  metric  system 
(notwithstanding  its  superiorities)  into  an  engineering  of- 
fice which  contemplated  continuing  business  with  the  peo- 
ple accustomed  only  to  feet  and  inches. 

In  spite  of  these  difficulties,  quite  a  number  of  these 
ginnery  compresses  were  introduced.      But  it  could  at  that 


Fig.  32. 
Cotton  Compress  with  Knuckle  Joints. 


MODERN    COTTON  GIN,  PRESS  AND  GINNERY.  IOI 

time  make  no  headway  against  the  inertia  of  the  old 
system.  About  1895,  the  controlling  force  of  old  influ- 
ences began  to  relax,  and  it  began  to  be  appreciated  that 
there  was  needed  a  more  convenient,  more  compact  and 
better  covered  bale  than  the  old  style  plantation  bale. 
Public  interest  has  stimulated  the  production  of  a  number 
of  presses  designed  to  produce  convenient  compressed 
bales  at  the  ginnery.  It  is  not  yet  apparent  that  any  of 
these  have  surpassed  the  press  shown'  in  Fig.  33. 

Ginnery  Compress  to  Make  Folded   Lap  Square   Bales.   5oo 
Pounds. 

Among-  the  first  devices  for  completing  the  pressing  of 
cotton  at  the  ginnery,  turning  out  a  bale  ready  for  export, 
was  a  machine  for  pressing  the  sheet  of  cotton  as  it  em- 
erged from  the  gin  condenser.  This  machine  consisted  of 
two  rolls,  held  tightly  together  as  they  revolved,  (be- 
tween which  the  cotton  passed),  and  a  folder  which  re- 
ceived this  compressed  sheet,  and  folded  it  back  and  forth 
in  the  ordinary  cotton  press.  The  rolls  performed  the 
real  compressing",  and  the  ordinary  cotton  press  merely 
closed  up  the  layers  tight  and  held  them  until  the  ties 
could  be  secured.  The  density  of  this  bale  was  as  great 
as  any  reo-ularly  compressed  bale,  25  to  30  pounds  per 
cubic  foot;  the  bale  was  of  the  prevailing  shape  and  size, 
and  all  the  mechanical  features  seemed  to  be  favorable  to 
the  general  introduction  of  this  system.  But  for  some 
reason  this  system  never  reached  any  commercial  impor- 
tance. The  fundamental  idea,  however,  of  compressing 
a  sheet  of  cotton  between  rolls,  previous  to  baling,  is  suc- 
cessfully employed  in  one  of  the  presses  now  in  use  for  the 
production  of  the  cylindrical,  or  so-called  round  bales. 


102  MODERN    COTTON  GIN,  PRESS  AND  GINNERY. 

Ginnery   Compress   to    Hake   Cylindrical     Lap    Bales,    250 
Pounds. 

Fig.   34   shows  a  cross  section  of  a  double  continuous 
press  for  making  cylindrical,  or  so-called  round  bales. 


Lettering. 


A — Flue  leading  from  gins. 

B — Wire  cloth  cylinder. 

C — Air  vent. 

D — Condensing  chamber. 

EF — Compress  rolls. 

G — Lap  rod. 

H — Lap  winding  pressure  roil. 

J — Hydraulic  pressure  cylinder. 

K — Wide  rubber  bale-supporting  apron. 

L — Tightening  roll. 

M — Reel  for  bagging. 

N — Valve  board. 

Process. 

Cotton  comes  from  the  gins  through  tine  A.  The  air 
current  from  the  gin  brushes,  conveying  the  cotton,  es- 
capes through  the  wire  cloth  surface  B  and  passes  out  the 
open  ends  of  the  cylinder  in  hood  leading  to  air  vent  C. 

The  cotton  falls  into  condensing  chamber  D. 

From  condensing  chamber  it  passes  as  a  condensed 
sheet  between  the  compress  rolls  EF. 

The  compressed  lap  is  carried  by  the  bale-supporting 
apron  K  to  the  lap  rod  G. 

It  is  given  a  start  by  hand  around  the  lap  rod  G. 

The  lap  winding  pressure  roll  H  is  then  set  up  by  the 
hydraulic  cylinder  J. 

The  roll  H  recedes  under  pressure  as  the  bale  increases 
in  diameter. 

As  the  bale  increases  it  requires  more  of  the  apron  K 


Fig.  34.     Ginnery  Compress,  Cylindrical  Lap  Bale. 


MODERN    COTTON  GIN,  PRESS  AND  GINNERY.  105 

to  support  it.  This  is  compensated  for  by  the  rising  of 
the  tightening  roll  L. 

When  bale  has  become  full  size,  the  valve  board  N  is 
reversed,  changing  condensed  sheet  to  companion  press, 
which  commences  at  once  to  make  another  bale. 

Bagging  is  led  from  reel  M  to  the  completed  bale,  rolled 
once  around  it,  cut  to  length  and  sewed  lengthwise. 

Then  the  bale  is  taken  out,  lap  rod  removed  and  the 
bagging  closed  at  the  ends. 

The  bales  from  this  press  are  generally  40  inches  long, 
to  correspond  with  width  of  lapper  in  a  cotton  mill.  They 
are  made  to  weigh  about  250  pounds,  have  a  density  of  about 
30  pounds  and  are  sold  by  samples,  taken  while  the  bale 
is  being  made. 

The  principal  objections  made  to  the  round  lap  bale 
are,  (i)  that  the  fibre  is  injured  by  the  severe  pressure 
put  on  the  lap  as  it  passes  through  the  pressure  rolls, 
(2)  that  the  centre  is  so  tightly  wound  that  it  is  difficult 
to  open  it  for  use,  (3)  "false  packing,"  the  pur- 
ting  of  bad  grade  cotton  in  the  centre  is  hard 
to  detect,  (4)  when  used  by  putting  on  opener  apron  and 
fed  direct  to  picker  room  machinery  as  is  intended,  there  is 
less  mixing  than  is  desirable  for  good  cotton  mill  practice, 
(5)  when  piled  up  in  warehouse,  the  space  between  bales 
form  objectionable  crevices,  where  fire  might  occur  and  be 
entirely  out  of  reach  of  fire  fighting  apparatus;  (6)  when 
these  bales  get  wet,  the  layers  tend  to  become  felted  and 
hard,  like  wood  pulp ;  such  layers  are  useless  to  the  spinner. 


106         MODERN    COTTON  GIN,  PRESS  AND  GINNERY. 

Ginnery  Compress  to  Make  End   Packed  Cylindrical   Bales, 
250  Pounds. 

Figs.  35  and  36  show  cross  sections  of  another  press 
for  making  cylindrical  bales. 

Lettering. 

1 — Upper  part  of  frame. 
2 — Friction  roller. 

3 — Frame  of  revolving  baling  chamber. 
4 — Tapered  portion  of  revolving    baling    chamber. 
5 — Slatted  portion  of  revolving  baling  chamber. 
6 — Head  tree  to  hold  slotted  plates. 
7 — Stationary  slotted  plates. 
8 — Slots  in  plates. 

9 — Pinion  to  revolve  baling  chamber. 
10 — Core  to  make  hole  through  bale. 
11 — Hopper  for  loose  cotton. 
12 — Feeding  fingers.. 
1 3 — Hy d ra  ulic  ram . 
14 — Cap  for  base  of  bale. 

15 — Severing  knives,  attached  to  baling  chamber. 
16 — -Radial  slide  for  knife. 

17 — Severing  knives,  separate  from    baling    cham- 
ber. 
18 — Knife  rods. 
19 — Movable  bale  carrier. 
20 — Radial  arm  for  bale  carrier. 

Process. 

Cotton  is  piled  into  hopper  11. 

Fingers  12  force  portions  of  cotton  through  slots  in 
plate  7. 

Cotton  in  revolving  chamber  4  catches  the  loose  cotton 
and  draws  it  under  the  plate.  The  taper  in  this  revolving 
chamber  and  the  pressure  of  the  hydraulic  ram  from  be- 
low, pack  the  bale. 


Fig.  35.     Ginnery  Compress,  End  Packed  Cylindrical  Bale. 


MODERN    COTTON  GIN,  PRESS  AND  GINNERY.  IO9 

As  the  loose  cotton  continues  to  be  drawn  in,  the  bale 
grows,  and  passes  on  into  the  basket  section  5. 

The  bale  base  on  hydraulic  ram  is  forced  up  against  the 
bale  and  resists  the  downward  passage  with  a  definite 
pressure.     As  bale  grows  this  forces  the  ram  down. 

When  proper  length  of  bale  is  made,  the  bale  base  14 
engages  the  knife  bar  18  which  operates  the  knives  17 
to  cut  off  the  bale,  while  knives  15  support  the  cotton  re- 
maining in  the  chamber  5. 

Ram  13  is  lowered  out  of  the  way  of  bale  base  14. 

Bale  base  14  is  caught  on  radial  arm  20  and  swung  out 
of  the  way,  carrying  the  bale  with  it. 

The  bale  is  tied  with  wire  and  slipped  into  a  sack  and 
tied. 

Another  bale  base  is  swung  into  position. 

Ram  is  run  up  to  bottom  of  baling  chamber,  the  knives 
are  withdrawn,  and  another  bale  proceeds  from  the  baling 
chamber. 

This  press  makes  an  acceptable  bale. 

The  disadvantages  of  this  press  are,  ( 1  )  the  greal:  friction 
on  the  cotton  as  it  is  drawn  through  and  under  the  slotted 
plates  has  a  tendency  to  burn  the  cotton,  or  to  discolor  it  by 
scorching.  ( 2 )  There  must  always  remain  a  certain  amount 
of  cotton  in  the  press.  This  makes  it  inconvenient  in  public 
ginneries,  where  each  customer  wants  his  cotton  kept  sepa- 
rate, and  wants  it  all,  as  soon  as  it  is  ginned.  (3)  Same 
insurance  objections  as  to  round  lap  bale.  (4)  Additional 
insurance  objection  on  account  of  opening  length  ways  (like 
a  "Jack-in-the-box")  when  wires  break,  under  the  action  of 
heat.  (5)  Hardened  edges,  on  account  of  friction  in  taper 
bale  chamber. 


IIO         MODERN    COTTON  GIN,  PRESS  AND  GINNERY. 

Ginnery    Compress  For    flaking    End    Packed    Cylindrical 
Bales,  250   Pounds. 

Figs.    $/    and   38   show   cross   sections   of   still   another 
press  for  making-  round  bales. 


Lettering. 


1 — Base  plate. 

2 — Supporting  columns. 

3 — Annular  top  frame. 

4- — Head  tree. 

5 — Annular  rotating  ring  with  bearings  to  carry 
compression  rolls. 

6 — Bearings  of  compression  rolls. 

7 — Neck  of  compression  rolls. 

8 — Compression  rolls. 

9 — Bevel  gear  to  rotate  rolls. 

10 — Stationary  rack  on  which  pinion  rolls. 

11 — Anti-friction  rollers. 

12 — Hopper  for  cotton. 

13 — Core  to  make  hole  in  bale. 

14 — Frame  for  holding  interchangeable  baling 
chambers 

15-16 — Split  ring  and  bars. 

17 — Hinges. 

18— Latch. 

19 — Base  of  baling  chamber. 

20 — Hydraulic  cylinder. 

21 — Annular  hydraulic  ram  to  carry  baling  cham- 
ber. 

22 — Inner  hydraulic  ram,  to  press  the  bale. 

Process. 

Inner  hydraulic  ran:  22  forces  base  of  baling  chamber  19 
up  against  rolls  8. 

Cotton  is  put  in  hopper  12. 


Fig.  $7.     Ginnery  Compress,  End  Packed  Cylindrical  Bal< 


Fig.  38.     Ginnery  C<  impress,  End  Packed  Cylindrical  Bale . 


MODERN    COTTON  GIN,  PRESS  AND  GINNERY.  115 

Shaft  and  pinion  26  and  25  transmit  rotary  motion  to 
annular  ring  5,  carrying  compression  rolls  8. 

Compression  rolls  8  are  carried  around  by  rotating  ring 
5,  and  are  at  the  same  time  rotated  on  their  own  axes. 

Cotton  is  drawn  under  rolls  8  and  compressed  against 
base  of  baling  chamber  19,  which  is  held  hard  by  the  hy- 
draulic pressure,  under  the  inner  ram. 

As  the  bale  grows,  inner  hydraulic  ram  is  pressed  lower, 
until  bale  is  finished. 

When  bale  is  finished,  rams  are  lowered  out  of  the  way, 
baling  chamber  is  swung  out,  bale  is  tied  with  wire  and 
put  into  a  sack.  Meantime,  another  baling  chamber  is 
swung  into  the  press  to  receive  the  next  bale. 

This  is  a  late  design  of  press  for  making  round  bales, 
which  is  not  yet  on  the  market,  and  whose  advantages 
and  disadvantages  have  not  yet  been  determined. 

Many  efforts  are  now  being  made  to  produce  a  satisfac- 
tory press  to  make,  at  the  ginnery,  a  bale  of  sufficient  den- 
sity for  export,  and  at  the  same  time  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  domestic  market.  The  accomplishment  of 
such  a  result  would  seem  very  desirable.  Several  such 
machines  now  being  introduced  seem  to  give  fair  promise 
of  success. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

Cbe  planting,  Cultivation  anfc  Ibarvcstino 
of  Cotton. 

The  cotton  herein  discussed  is  the  upland  varieties  of 
Gossypium  Herbaccum.  cultivated  in  the  Southern  United 
States. 

Varieties. 

Without  entering  into  the  history  of  this  plant  and 
its  numberless  varieties,  a  few  of  the  best  kinds  will  l~>e 
studied.  The  method  of  preparing  lands,  planting,  fer- 
tilizing, cultivating  and  ginning  will  apply  equally  well 
to  most  of  the  other  varieties  of  upland  cotton.  The  se- 
lection of  the  particular  variety  of  cotton  adapted  to  any 
special  locality,  with  its  surrounding  conditions  of  cli- 
mate, weather,  soil,  labor,  etc.,  cam.ot  be  predetermined, 
in  the  absence  of  some  precedent  in  that  locality.  The 
best  that  can  be  done  is  to  select  such  varieties  as  have 
proven  best  under  similar  environments,  and  to  finally  de- 
velop the  particular  habit  of  plant  best  suited  to  that  lo- 
cality, by  a  process  of  annually  selecting  seed  and  culti- 
vating. For  example,  if  the  ground  is  very  rich  and  ca- 
pable of  developing  large  plants  with  many  bolls,  a  large 
variety  should  be  selected  at  the  start,  and  seed  should 
be  selected  each  successive  year  from  the  largest  and  best 
fruited  stalks,  at  a  period  of  its  growth  when  its  fruit  is  in 
the  most  perfect  condition.  If  the  ravages  of  leaf  in- 
sects are  to  be  feared,  cotton  with  a  low  habit  and  a  min- 
imum amount  of  foliage  should  be  selected  and  bred,  ft 
labor  is  scarce  at  any  particular  season  of  the  year,  cotton 
should  be  selected  which  will  be  ready  for  the  harvest  as 
nearly  as  possible  at  other  seasons.  If  labor  is  abundant 
and  cheap  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  it  is,  in  general,  more 


pq 


PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING.  II9 

profitable  to  cultivate  a  variety  whose  maturity  will  ex- 
tend over  a  prolonged  period.  This  necessitates  a  larger 
number  of  successive  pickings,  but  contributes  in  the  end 
to  a  larger  yield  of  the  plant.  On  the  other  hand,  if  labor 
is  scarce,  a  variety  must  be  selected  that  will  require  the 
smallest  number  of  separate  .pickings,  thus  enabling  the 
laborer  to  pick  a  larger  quantity  per  day.  As  an  example 
of  two  extremes  in  this  particular,  the  variety  known  a^ 
"King"  produces  40  per  cent,  at  the  first  picking  and  40 
per  cent,  at  the  second  picking,  at  dates  about  two  weeks 
apart.  The  remaining  20  per  cent,  has  to  be  gathered  in 
from  two  to  three  more  pickings.  The  variety  "Texas 
Oak"  appears  to  give  the  greatest  yield  of  upland  cot- 
ton, and  it  yields  10  per  cent  at  first  picking,  40  per  cent, 
at  second  and  40  per  cent,  at  third. 

The  method  above  outlined  for  gradually  breeding  the 
special  variety  adapted  to  a  certain  condition,  may  be 
termed  artificial  selection,  which  is  based  on  the  same 
laws  as  natural  selection.  In  addition  to  this,  the  method 
of  hybridization  has  been  widely  and  successfully  adopted 
in  the  breeding  of  cotton  varieties.  This  is  accomplished 
by  cutting  out  the  stamens  from  the  flower  of  one  plant 
and  artificially  fertilizing  the  pistil  of  this  flower  with  the 
pollen  dusted  from  the  stamen  of  a  flower  from  a  plant  of 
another  variety.  The  flower  thus  impregnated  produces 
a  boll  of  cotton,  whose  seeds  partake  more  or  less  of  the 
characteristics  of  both  parents.  The  seeds  produce  a  new 
hybrid  variety.  This  in  turn  may  be  hybridized,  so  that 
by  proper  skill,  any  given  characteristic  may  be  accentu- 
ated to  any  desired  extent.  These  cotton  hybrids,  like 
most  other  hybrids,  are  liable  to  great  variation,  and 
great  care  is  necessary,  for  several  generations,  to  pro- 
duce a  new  variety  which  shall  remain  stable  and  true  to 
name. 

Range  of  Locality. 

All  varieties  of  cotton  may  be  grown  through  a  wide 
range  of  latitude,    and    various    conditions   cf   soil   and 


120         PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING. 

vicissitudes  of  weather,  without  fertilizing,  and  with  the 
simplest  methods  of  culture.  This  was  abundantly  dem- 
onstrated in  the  Southern  United  States,  on  the  libera- 
tion of  its  slaves.  These  people  were  absolutely  without 
education,  and  totally  incapable  of  thinking  or  planning 
for  themselves.  They  naturally  continued  farming  as  an 
cccupation,  but  signally  failed  in  all  crops  but  cotton, 
which  grew  in  spite  of  any  method  or  lack  of  method. 
But  in  modern  and  intelligent  cotton  farming,  the  profit 
arises  from  carefully  considering  ail  the  details  as  to  va- 
rieties and  farming  operations. 

Habits. 

Cotton  is  planted  in  early  spring,  and  germinates  in 
three  or  four  days.  In  about  one  month  it  begins  to  pro- 
duce buds.  The  buds  are  developed  in  a  large 
involucre  which,  from  its  shr.pe,  gi'.es  to  the  bud 
the  local  name  "square."  See  Fig.  40A.  After  an- 
other month,  when  the  plant  is  10  to  15  inches  high, 
this  bud  opens  and  produces  a  white  flower  about 
1^  inches  long,  and  and  about  the  same  diameter.  See 
Fig.  40B.  The  petals  turn  pink  the  second  morring  aftT 
its  appearance,  and  drop  off  tne  third,  leaving  the  small 
ovary  about  |  inches  in  diameter,  within  the  involucre. 
This  ovary  is  known'  as  the  '■boll,"  and  grows.,  after  about 
one  month,  to  full  maturity,  being  then  ovoid  and  about 
ixil  inches  in  diameter.  See  Fig.  41  A.  The  plant  is 
then  mature,  and  is  about  4  feet  high.  The  boll  ripens 
in  from  one  to  two  months,  turning  from  a  bright  green 
to  brown,  and,  becoming  dry,  cracks  open,  separating 
into  about  five  segments.  See  Fig.  41 B.  YY 'thin  each 
of  these  segments  lightly  adheres  the  lint  cotton  sur- 
rounding the  seed,  about  32  in  number.  See  Fig.  42. 
These  separate  cotton  segments  are  called  "locks."  Cot- 
ton in  this  condition  is  generally  called  "seed  cotton,"  as 
distinguished  from  "lint    cotton."    which  is  the  product 


o 


pq 


- 


PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING.  1 25 

without  the  seed,  being  the  article  known  in  commerce  as 
"cotton."  There  are  usually  about  10,000  cotton  plants 
per  acre. 

Yield. 

The  average  yield  under  moderate  cultivation  is  about 
1 -10  lbs.  of  seed  cot  ion  per  plant,  about  1-3  of  which  is 
lint,  and  2-3  seed.  These  yields  and  proportions  vary,  of 
course,  with  variety  of  cotton  and  mode  of  treatment. 
The  long  period  required  for  the  growth  and  maturity 
of  cotton,  while  rendering  inconvenient  the  growth  of  other 
crops  on  the  same  land  in  the  same  year,  possesses  the 
great  advantages  of  enabling  the  plant  to  average  up  in 
its  lifetime,  extreme  variations  in  heat,  cold,  moisture  and 
drought;  thus  a  total  failure  of  the  cotton  crop  is  practi- 
cally impossible. 

Soil. 

Ideal  soil  for  the  production  of  cotton  is  considered  to 
be  fine  sandy  loam,  underlaid  with  clay;  the  sand  serving 
to  transmit  heat  and  air  to  the  roots,  and  the  clay  sub-soil 
to  retain  moisture  and  prevent  .eaching  away  of  fertilizers. 
Natural  fertility  in  soil,  seems  not  to  be  permanent,  because, 
without  the  annual  application  of  fertilizers,  cotton,  like  all 
other  plants,  would,  in  time,  exhaust  the  land.  This  time 
would  naturally  be  longer,  the  more  fertile  the  soil. 
But  it  follows  that  land  which  is  fertile  by  nature,  is  also 
a  land  which  will  conserve  artificial  fertilizers. 

Fertilizers. 

While  cotton  responds  most  generously  to  the  appli- 
cation of  fertilizers,  it  is  not  possible  to  indefinitely  in- 
crease this  yield.  The  limit  of  increase  depends  upon  the 
character  of  the  soil.  Though  in  any  soil  this  limit  of  in- 
crease may  be  extended  by  judicious  treatment.  The 
reaching  of  this  limit  is  analogous  to  the  correct  propor- 


126         PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING. 

tions  of  a  mechanical  structure  like  a  bridge.  There 
must  be  the  proper  materials,  they  must  be  properly  dis- 
tributed and  of  the  proper  weight.  In  this  condition, 
any  increase  in  the  amount  of  material  used  actually  de- 
tracts from  the  utility  of  the  structure.  But  it  is  always 
possible  by  readjusting  supports,  to  add  new  strength 
by  the  addition  of  more  material. 

The  proper  method  of  proportioning  and  mixing  the  in- 
gredients to  produce  the  desired  results,  is  fully  treated  in 
the  chapter  on  Fertilizers. 

Draft  on  the  Soil. 

The  cotton  plant  takes  less  from  the  soil  than  most  other 
crops.  If  the  actual  elements  of  nutrition  which  this  plant 
requires,  be  annually  restored  to  the  soil,  cotton  may  be 
profitably  grown  on  the  same  land  annually  for  all  time, 
without  any  rotation,  other  than  that  gained  by  planting 
the  rows  of  cotton  each  year,  between  the  rows  of  the  pre- 
vious year. 

Implements  for  Cultivation. 

Owing  to  the  low  mechanical  ability  in  the  class  of 
labor  that  was  heretofore  almost  universal  in  cotton  farming 
in  the  United  States,  advancement  toward  scientific  and 
complicated  agricultural  implements  has  been  exceedingly 
slow.  Nothing  but  the  least  complicated  implements  have 
maintained  their  supremacy,  those  which  can  be  easily  re- 
paired at   the   plantation   blacksmith   shop. 

The  motive  power  was  the  mule ;  the  transmission  appa- 
ratus was  harness  with  the  least  number  of  parts,  made 
of  corn  husks,  cotton  ropes  and  bands  and  chains  (locally 
known  as  "gear")  ;  the  plow  was  as  simple  as  could  be  made, 
with  no  adjustments  save  as  to  the  "point";  the  guiding 
hand  was  the  negro.  This  was  a  congenial  and  a  harmoni- 
ous whole,  which  the  natural  law  of  evolution  developed 
as  the  most  profitable  engine — the  white  man  being  the 


JO 

-a 
c5 
o 
be 


PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING.  1 29 

engineer — for  the  production  of  the  largest  share  of  the 
world's  cotton  crop. 

As  one  after  another  of  social  and  racial  conditions 
have  changed,  changes  naturally  occurred  in  agricultural 
implements.  As  the  price  of  plantation  labor  materially 
advanced,  labor  saving  implements  naturally  came  into 
being,  and  they  were  adjusted  to  suit  the  conditions. 

Figure  43  exhibits  the  Common  form  of  plow,  as  a 
whole;  the  iron  part,  shown  bolted  on  at  the  extreme  bot- 
tom, being  known  as  the  "plow  point,"  and  the  rest  of  it 
as  the  "plow  stock."  The  point  of  attachment  at  the  ex- 
treme right  has  two  divisions;  if  the  draft  arrangement  is 
put  in  the  lower  division,  the  plow  runs  shallower,  and  if 
in  the  upper  division,  deeper.  Formerly  the  entire  plow 
stock  was  made  of  oak,  only  the  point  being  iron  or  steel. 
It  is  now  the  universal  practice  to  make  them  with  the 
iron  foot,  as  shown  The  handles  are  24  inches  apart, 
and  the  length  of  beam  44  inches.  The  weight  is  about 
40  pounds. 

Figure  44  shows  some  of  the  plow  points.  No.  3  is 
the  "shovel."  It  measures  10  inches  wide  and  12  inches 
long.  It  is  principally  used  to  run  the  last  or  middle  furrow 
in  making  the  "bed."  as  described  in  the  paragraph  on 
Preparation  of  Land.  No.  4  is  the  "scooter,"  or  "bull- 
tongue."  It  is  \\  itches  wide  and  12  inches  long.  It  is 
used  to  run  the  first  or  laying-off  furrows  in  bedding,  and 
to  run  in  many  of  the  subsequent  furrows  for  deepening 
them.  It  is  also  used  as  a  part  of  a  combination  shown 
hereafter.  Nos.  5  and  6  are  different  forms  of  the  sweep. 
No.  5  is  20  inches  wide  and  12  inches  long.  No  6  is  20 
inches  wide  and  12  inches  long.  The  sweep  is  used  in 
cultivating  growing  cotton,  to  kill  grass  while  loosening 
up  the  earth  to  the  shallowest  possible  amount.  The 
sweep  is  intended  to  be  wide  enough  from  tip  to  tip  to  go 
over  in  two  runs  the  entire  space  between  two  adjacent 
cotton  rows,  running  as  near  each  row  of  plants  as  pos- 
sible not  to  actually  cut  them. 


130         PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING. 

In  Figure  45,  Nos.  1  and  2  are  different  forms  of  the 
turn  plow  used  for  general  purposes  in  breaking  up  land, 
and  for  bedding.  No.  1  is  j\  inches  wide  and  12  inches 
long.  No.  2  is  7  inches  wide  and  16  inches  long.  No.  8 
is  another  form  of  sweep,  built  up  of  three  parts:  two  sep- 
arable "wings,"  and  the  centre  part,  which  is  the  scooter 
shown  at  No.  4,  Figure  44.  The  three  parts  are  shown 
in  Figure  46  bolted  together  with  the  "heel  bolt,"  which 
is  the  bolt  used  to  fasten  plow  points  to  the  plow  stock. 
This  bolt  has  a  thumb  nut,  which  can  be  screwed  up  bv 
hand  and  made  tight  by  striking  with  a  heavy  stick  or 
stone,  or  any  object  convenient  in  the  field.  The  width 
of  this  is  about  the  same  as  other  sweeps.  The  centre 
piece  is  put  on  for  a  guide  to  steady  the  plow  in  its  course. 
It  enters  the  ground  far  enough  away  from  the  plant  not 
to  cut  the  roots,  especially  when  the  plant  is  young.  No. 
6,  Figure  44,  runs  shallower,  and  is  a  better  form  to  use 
as  the  plant  grows  older  and  the  roots  reach  farther. 

Figure  46  shows  another  sweep  built  up  of  two  pieces; 
the  same  scooter  (No.  4,  Fig.  44),  for  a  centre,  and  a  flat 
piece  of  steel  (No.  7)  bent  around,  to  form  the  wings. 
This  is  about  f  inches  thick  and  3  inches  broad.  Built-up 
sweeps  are  easier  to  make  and  repair  than  the  solid  kinds, 
and  they  can  be  made  from  the  ordinary  small  sizes  of  bar 
steel  kept  around  the  shop  or  in  stock  at  the  village 
stores.  No.  10  is  the  hoe  used  for  "chopping  out"  cot- 
ton, or  killing  the  superfluous  plants,  to  leave  growing 
plants  at  a  certain  distance  apart  in  the  row.  The  blade 
is  7  inches  wide  and  6  inches  long.  The  handle  is  64 
inches  long. 

Figure  47  shows  two  fertilizer  distributors;  one  a  tin 
funnel  with  long  spout,  and  the  other  a  more  advanced 
form.  The  funnel  is  5  inches  wide  at  the  mouth  and  42 
inches  long.  It  is  colloquially  known  as  a  "guano  horn." 
A  man  carries  it  by  means  of  a  rope  tied  in  the  two  rings, 
and  slung  over  the  shoulder,  so  that  the  spout  trails  in 
the  furrow.       He  also  carries  a  sack  of  guano,  so  placed 


**"?<?.*  £„t  $ 


Fig.  44.     Sundry  Plow  Points. 


Fig.  45.     Sundry  Plow  Points. 


PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING.  I  35 

that  he  can  easily  take  out  a  cup-full  at  a  time,  and  throw 
it  in  the  funnel  as  uniformly  as  possible  while  he  walks. 
The  funnel  prevents  wind  from  scattering  the  guano. 
The  machine  shown  in  Figure  47  is  pushed  by  hand  so 
that  the  wheel  follows  down  the  furrow.  Guano  runs  out 
of  the  hopper  into  the  shaker,  which  is  agitated  by  means 
of  cams  on  side  of  wheel.  The  amount  distributed  may 
be  adjusted  by  a  thumb  nut  on  top.  which  regulates  the 
distance  that  shaker  hangs  from  bottom  of  hopper. 
The  machine  is  66  inches  long  and  24  inches  wide  between 
handles,  and  weighs  <ic  pounds. 

Figure  48  is  a  cotton  planter,  which  makes  a  small  fur- 
row, drops  seed  in  it  at  a  uniform  rate,  and  covers  it.  It 
consists  of  a  hopper,  holding  about  half  bushel  of  seed, 
supported  by  two  benms  which  meet  in  front,  and  diverge 
to  the  handles  in  the  rear.  In  the  extreme  front,  at  left 
of  figure,  is  a  plate  with  holes  in  it  for  attaching  the  draft 
arrangement  for  mule.  Directly  back  of  that  is  a  narrow 
plow  arranged  to  adjust  at  varying  depths  to  open  tht 
seed  furrow.  Next  comes  a  wrooden  wheel  following  in 
the  furrow.  A  crank  is  attached  to  the  axis  of  wheel, 
which  oscillates  by  means  of  a  connecting  rod,  a  smaill  shaft 
in  hopper.  This  shaft  carries  long  teeth  at  right  angles 
to  it,  to  agitate  the  seed  and  force  them  out  at  the  open- 
ing in  bottom.  This  agitation  is  necessary  to  make  the 
seed  fall  out,  because  the  particles  of  adhering  lint  cause 
them  to  stick  together  and  pack.  Behind  the  seed  apert- 
ure, follows  the  covering  board,  attached  to  the  frame  of 
machine  by  long  springs,  to  compensate  for  unevenness  of 
ground.  The  machine  is  about  the  same  size  as  the  ferti- 
lizer distributor  and  weighs  60  pounds. 

Figure  49  is  a  large  sub-soiler,  which  is  but  rarely  used. 
Something  similar  is  in  use  in  parts  of  Texas  for  origin- 
ally breaking  up  prairie  lands  and  putting  them  in  tilth. 
It  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  ordinary  plow,  and  on  nc- 
count  of  the  heavy  "point,"  weighs  100  pounds.  The 
plow  points  for  use  with  this  plow  are  cast  steel,  made 


136         PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING. 

separable,   so   that   parts  most   quickly  worn   may  be   re- 
placed. 

Plow  points  shown  in  Figures  44  and  45  were  formerly 
made  of  wrought  ircn,  and  had  the  points  plaited  or 
"laid.'  by  welding  on  narrow  pieces  of  steel.  Bars  of  iron 
about  3-8  inches  thick  and  of  just  the  right  width  for  the 
various  plows,  were  usually  bought,  along  with  othei 
plantation  supplies,  and  the  plows  were  forged  at  home. 
Now,  however,  it  is  the  custom  to  buy  plows  from  the 
implement  factories,  where  they  are  shaped  out  of  solid 
steel  by  special  machines,  and  are  cheaper  and  better  than 
the  home-made  article.  In  any  case  it  is  necessary  to 
have  a  blacksmith  forge  for  sharpening  plows  on  the 
plantation.  It  is  especially  desirable  to  always  keep  sweeps 
as  sharp  as  possible,  to  the  end  that  they  may  not  fail  to 
cut  all  grass  and  weeds  between  cotton  rows. 

Preparation  of  Land. 

Land  which  has  never  been  under  cultivation  for  any 
crop  should  be  put  in  readiness  for  cotton  crop  in  the 
same  general  way  as  for  other  crops,  that  is:  cleared  of  all 
rubbish  of  whaicvc  nature,  and  plowed  up,  to  get  the 
land  in  good  "tilth."  Except  in  the  case  of  prairie  lands, 
where  heavy  grass  covers  the  ground,  this  preparation 
should  be  accomplished  as  late  as  possible  in  the  spring, 
just  in  time  to  be  ready  before  planting.  Some  planters 
make  a  practice  of  preparing  cotton  lands  in  the  fall  for 
the  next  spring  planting;  but  it  lias  been  abundantly 
proven  that,  (except  for  special  reasons  hereafter  men- 
tioned) such  work,  on  the  average  cotton  land,  is  worse 
than  useless,  for  the  reason  that  it  softens  the 
land  for  the  reception  of  winter  rains,  which 
leach  away  much  natural  plant  food.  The  prac- 
tice of  fall  preparation  originated  in  Northern  lati- 
tudes, where  much  snow  falls,  and  where  deep  freezing  is 
facilitated.  Both  of  these  matters  are  of  recognized 
,\  alue  to  the  land. 


PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING.  1 39 

All  vegetable  matter  when  properly  decomposed,  is 
valuable  plant  food;  therefore  if  the  proposed  field  is  cov- 
ered with  dead  grass  and  roots,  it  should  be  plowed  under 
in  order  that  it  may  decompose  and  furnish  food  for 
the  new  cotton  crop.  This  is  a  matter  requiring  careful 
judgment,  in  estimating  whether  the  expense  involved 
in  turning  under  the  particular  grass  in  question  will  bring 
a  commensurate  return  as  a  fertilizer  on  that  particular 
lnnd.  Its  value  will  always  be  in  its  nitrogen;  and,  if  the 
land  happens  to  be  nlready  rich  in  ihat  element,  as  in  the 
case  of  lands  in  river  bottoms  and  cane  brakes,  the 
additional  nitrogen  is  not  profitable. 

When  breaking  up  land,  the  plowing  must  be 
as  deep  as  possible,  and  done  when  the  ground  is  in  the 
right  condition  as  to  moisture,  so  that  it  will  not  clod. 
If,  from  the  nature  of  the  land,  clods  are  inevitable,  the 
harrow  must  follow.  No  crop  may  be  successfully 
raised  in  soil  where  lumps  and  clods  exist  to  an  extent  to 
prevent  uniformity  in  planting,  covering  and  cultivating. 

When,  by  the  foregoing  operations,  the  ground  is 
brought  into  good  tilth,"  the  operation  of  "bedding"  is 
begun. 

This  is  the  throwing  up  of  wide  elevated  ridges,  in  the 
centre  and  top  of  which,  the  seed  is  to  be  drilled.  The 
width  of  these  beds  is  therefore  determined  by  the  width 
decided  upon  for  the  cotton  rows.  The  entire  field  is 
made  up  into  these  alternate  beds  and  "middles"  or  cen- 
tre furrows.  The  w'dth  of  the  cotton  rows  in  the  South- 
ern States  of  America  is  by  common  consent  made  four 
feet,  while  in  the  Southwestern  prairies,  and  in  the  Mis- 
sissippi bottoms,  rows  are  sometimes  six  feet.  The  gen- 
eral rule  may  be  stated  that  rows  are  to  be  laid  off  a  dis- 
tance equal  to  the  average  height  attained  by  the  plant. 

The  first  operation  in  bedding,  is  plowing  a  series  of 
furrows  throughout  the  field,  at  proper  distance  apart  for 
the  rows,  (say  four  feet).  On  hillsides  these  rows  must 
run  in  contours,  around  the  hill,  in  order  to  keep  as  near 


140         PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING. 

level  as  possible,  to  prevent  washing  by  heavy  rains. 
Cotton  does  just  as  well,  if  not  better,  on  level  ground, 
and  whenever  possible,  fairly  level  ground  should  be 
chosen.  In  this  case,  rows  are  generally  run  north  and 
south  with  an  idea  to  catch  the  sun  more  fully  between  them, 
and  are  as  straight  as  they  can  he  plowed.  The  usual 
method  of  laying  off  rows  in  the  Southeastern  States  of 
America  is  to  set  up  a  tall  pole  (with  a  piece  of  cotton  or 
white  paper  on  the  top  end  to  make  :t  visible)  at  the  north- 
western corner  of  the  held.  Start  the  plow  at  the  south- 
western corner;  but  before  proceeding  set  up  another  pole 
four  feet  east  of  starting  point,  for  a  target  for  the  return 
row.  Plow  straight  toward  the  pole  at  northwestern 
corner,  driving  the  mule  so  that  the  pole  is  always  visible 
between  his  ears,  and  holding  the  plow  steady.  At  the 
end  of  the  row  (winch  on  level  ground  may  be  half  a  mile 
long)  move  the  pole  eight  feet  to  the  east  for  the  next 
target,  and  plow  south,  towards  the  pole  set  up  at  the  be- 
ginning. An  experienced  man  can  lay  oft"  rows  by  this 
method  as  straight  as  if  run  with  a  transit.  A  scooter  14) 
is  the  usual  plow  for  this  purpose.  It  does  not  make  a 
furrow  deep  enough,  but  any  deep  running  plow  would  be 
difficult  to  hold  in  iis  course  with  sufficient  accuracy  for 
spacing  off  the  rows.  Another  scooter  should  follow  in 
the  same  furrow,  and  make  it  altogether  at  least  12  inches 
deep.  In  this  deep  centre  furrow  should  be  distributed 
the  fertilizer,  of  the  amount  and  kind  set  forth  in  the  chap- 
ter on  fertilizers.  It  should  be  applied  with  a  ferti- 
lizer distributor.  See  Fig.  47.  This  machine  can  be  ad- 
justed to  evenly  del'ver  any  required  amount.  Other 
plows  follow  each  other  on  each  side  of  the  centre  furrow, 
throwing  the  soil  toward  the  centre,  until  they  reach  half 
the  distance  to  the  adjacent  row.  This  half-way  line  is 
called  the  "middle."  The  plows  used  in  bedding  are, 
first,  the  scooter(4)  it  1  laying  off  and  sub-soiling  in  same 
furrow;  then  the  turn  plow  (2)  on  each  side,  followed  by 
a  scooter  for  deepening,  in  same  furrow.     This  is  repeated 


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PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING.  1 45 

in  furrow  after  furrow  until  the  "middles"  are  reached. 
One  line  is  plowed  down  the  middle  with  a  shovel  (3).  It 
requires  about  11  furrows  to  complete  the  "bed,"' 
which  forms  a  ridge  four  feet  wide  and  rising  above  the 
natural  level  of  ground  some  six  inches,  flanked  on 
each  side  by  "middles/*  which  appear  like  flat  gullies  some 
six  inches  below  natural  level.  The  ridge  itself  thus  ap- 
pears to  be  about  12  inches  high.  The  fertilizer  is  thus 
buried  in  the  centre  of  ridge  about   18  inches  deep. 

One  of  the  cardinal  points  is  to  get  deep  tilth 
in  order  to  induce  cotton  roots  to  grow  deep  in  the 
ground.  Cotton  has  a  tap  root,  which  will,  under 
favorable  conditions,  go  four  feet  deep  in  search  of  food 
and  moisture.  The  deeper  that  ground  can  be  stirred  in 
preparation,  the  deeper  the  roots  will  run,  thus  obtaining 
a  firm  hold  against  storms,  and  providing  the  plant  with 
moisture  during  droughts.  It  might  naturally  be  in- 
ferred that  the  deep  plowing  required,  could  be 
ohtained  with  fewer  furrowings  by  using  a  heavy 
two-horse  plow  like  that  shown  in  Figure  49. 
There  are  conditions  where  this  might  be  true.  The  soil 
must  be  very  sandy  or  friable,  so  that  the  large  rolls  of 
earth,  turned  up  at  each  furrow,  will  naturally  fall  in  a 
finely  divided  state.  The  soil  must  not  be  too  damp,  or 
the  large  plow  will  inevitably  leave  lumps,  while  relatively 
small  plows  repeated  in  the  same  furrow,  as  described, 
will  reach  as  deep,  and  tend  to  pulverize  any  kind  of  soil. 
If  the  heavy  plow  be  used,  and  large  clods  result  while 
bedding,  the  evil  cannot  be  remedied  with  a  harrow,  as 
is  the  case  of  ordinary  breaking  up  of  lands,  for  the  reason 
that  harrowing  would  destroy  the  idiape  of  the  bed. 

The  time  required  to  make  beds  for  cotton,  not  includ- 
ing any  preliminary  process  of  clearing  the  land  and  put- 
ting it  in  "tilth,"  is  based  on  the  average  distance  walked 
by  a  mule  while  drawing  a  plow,  say  17  miles  per  day. 
For  rows  four  feet  wide  11  furrows  per  row,  there  are 
22  miles  of  furrows  per  acre,  hence  one  plow  can  bed  .8 


146         PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING. 

acres  per  day.  The  number  of  mules  and  plow  hands 
must  be  so  calculated  that  all  the  land  designed  to  be 
planted  in  cotton,  may  be  prepared  within  one  month 
previous  to  the  date  of  planting.  This  limit  is  arbitrary, 
but  is  based  on  the  fact  that  (within  practical  limits)  the 
shorter  time  the  beds  lie  exposed  to  the  weather  before 
receiving  seed,  the  loss  chance  there  is  for  leaching  away 
the  fertilizers,  and  for  settling  and  hardening  of  the  soil. 
At  the  rate  above  mentioned,  one  plow  can  bed  about  20 
acres  per  month.  This  allowance  is  about  the  usual  prac- 
tice, and  provides  for  spare  time  to  devote  to  small  food 
crops  generally  considered  essential  in  connection  with 
cotton  farming. 

If  cotton  is  to  be  planted  in  a  field  which  has  just  pro- 
duced a  crop  of  cotton,  the  laying  out  of  rows  is  simplified, 
because  the  old  beds  serve  as  markers.  The  new 
beds  are  arranged  to  lie  exactly  over  the  old  middles,  and 
vice  versa.  This  allows  a  given  strip  of  land  to  rest,  and  to 
raise  cotton  alternate  years.  This  practice  has  the  further 
advantage  of  allowing  the  fertilizer  furrow  to  go  deeper,  as 
it  is  already  somewhat  lower  than  the  top  of  the  bed. 

Planting. 

The  date  of  planting  cotton  varies  with  the  climate  and 
with  the  seasons,  from  March  10th  m  Southern  Texas  to 
May  1st  in  North  Carolina.  The  theory  is  to  plant 
as  early  as  it  can  be  safely  assumed  that  there  is  no  danger 
from  frost.  The  young  cotton  plant  is  very  easily  dam- 
aged. It  will  stand  considerable  frost  without  being  ac- 
tually killed;  but  it  is  inevitably  stunted,  and  frequently  to 
Mich  an  extent  that  other  cotton  planted  two  weeks  later 
may  thrive  and  produce  much  better.  Cotton  has  been 
known  to  mature  a  good  crop  in  the  State  of  Georgia 
when  planted  June  1st,  although  the  usual  date  of  planting 
there  is  April  10th.  This  is  mentioned,  to  show  the  possi- 
bilities in  the  case  when  the  weather  conditions  are  just 
right.      Rut  such  planting  as  a  rule  would  only  be  experi- 


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PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING.  149 

mental.  Early  planting  is  desirable  in  order  to  give  the 
plant  time  to  get  a  firm  hold  on  the  soil,  during  spring- 
rains,  in  order  to  survive  the  long  summer  droughts, 
(about  100  days)  usual  in  cotton  growing  localities. 
Late  planting  is  generally  productive  of  inferior  lint. 

A  shallow  furrow,  some  three  inches  deep,  is  opened  in 
the  middle  of  the  bed,  and  the  seed  drilled  in  and  covered 
one  to  two  inches  deep.  The  earlier  that  cotton  is 
planted,  the  more  lightly  must  it  be  covered,  because  the 
ground  is  colder,  anc  the  seed  has  less  warmth  to  make  it 
germinate.  An  implement  called  the  "cotton  planter" 
(Figure  48)  is  used  for  the  complete  operation  of  opening 
the  furrow,  sowing  the  seed  and  covering.  It  is  drawn 
by  a  mule  in  the  same  manner  as  a  plow,  and  can  be  ad- 
justed to  distribute  seed  as  thinly  or  thickly  as  desired. 
One  man  and  mule  can  plant  with  this  implement  six  to 
eight  acres  per  day,  and  it  is  done  with  great  regularity. 
Formerly  the  planting  was  done  by  opening  places  in  the 
bed  with  a  hoe  (10)  at  more  or  less  regular  intervals,  and 
dropping  a  handful  of  seed  into  each  place,  and  covering 
with  the  hoe.  This  work  was  done  by  women.  A  good 
day's  work  was  one  acre  per  day.  Four  times  as  much 
seed  was  used  as  with  the  latter  method.  The  result,  too, 
was  not  so  good,  some  seed  being  planted  deeper  than 
others,  so  that  some  plants  came  up  later  than  others. 

Although  the  cotton  plants,  when  mature,  never  stand 
less  than  one  foot  apart,  the  intention  is  to  drop  with  the 
cotton  planter  one  seed  every  inch.  This  is  to  allow  for 
any  irregularity  in  the  working  of  the  implement,  and  for 
faulty  seed.  When  the  plants  come  up,  they  are  all  thin- 
ned to  the  required  distance,  as  hereafter  described. 
Seed  is  so  cheap  that  but  little  effort  is  made  to  econo- 
mize in  the  amount  planted.  When  costly,  selected  seed 
is  used,  or  when,  for  other  reasons  the  price  is  high,  the 
amount  sowed  may  be  with  profit  reduced. 

At  the  rate  of  one  seed  per  inch  in  rows  four  feet  apart. 
131,000  seeds  are  required  per  acre..     As  there  are  about 


150         PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING. 

5,000  seed  per  pound  it  requires  26  pounds,  or  nearly  a 
bushel  per  acre.  As  the  plants  are  to  finally  stand  only 
one-twelfth  the  planted  distance,  it  is  obvious  that,  under 
the  most  economical  system  used  at  present,  eleven- 
twelfths,  or  over  90  per  cent,  of  the  seed  is  wasted. 

The  object  in  plai  ting  cotton  in  ridges,  as  described, 
is  primarily  to  drain  it  of  surplus  water.  The  plant  does 
not  require  much  water  at  the  surface  of  the  ground.  In- 
cidently,  the  elevated  bed  or  ridge,  gives  the  roots  freer 
access  to  heat  and  air.  The  "middles"  form  a  complete 
drainage  system  for  the  held,  rendering  it  impossible  for 
puddles  of  water  to  stand  in  the  cotton. 

Cultivation. 

Within  three  to  six  ciays  after  planting  (depending  ^n 
weather  and  on  care  in  planting)  the  cotton  plant  ap 
pears  with  two  (false)  leaves  above  ground,  standing 
thick  in  rows.  When  it  attains  its  third  leaf  it  is  three  to 
five  inches  high,  and  is  two  to  four  weeks  old.  This  is 
the  season  for  thinning  out  (called  "chopping")  to  the  re- 
quired distance.  This  is  done  with  the  hoe  (10),  and  the 
intention  is  to  leave  only  one  stalk  in  a  place.  The  proper 
distance  for  plants  to  stand  in  the  row  has  never  been  defi- 
nitely fixed,  some  good  planters  preferring  only  9  inches, 
while  others,  equally  as  successful,  contend  for  twice  this 
distance.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  under  average  condi- 
tions, that  the  distance  apart,  within  these  limits,  makes 
but  little  difference  in  the  ultimate  vield  of  cotton.  The 
closer  the  plants  stand,  the  greater  the  number  that  may 
stand  on  a  given  area,  but  (ordinarily)  the  less  yield  per 
plant.  Certain  conditions  of  soil  and  climate,  how- 
ever, seem  to  produce  better  at  one  distance  than  another. 
It  is  well  known,  for  instance,  that  thick  planting  superin- 
duces early  maturity,  so  that,  if  for  reasons  of  early  frost 
in  the  autumn,  or  for  fear  of  some  late  insect  pest,  it  is  de- 
sired to  hasten  the  maturity  of  the  crop,  thick  planting 
would  be  preferred.     On  the  whole,  it  would  seem  bet- 


Fig.  50.     Gang  Plow  for  Cultivating-  Cotton. 


152  PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING. 

ter  practice  to  leave  the  plants  not  more  than  12  inches 
apart,  and  trust  to  high  fertilization  and  cultivation  to 
make  each  plant  produce  its  maximum.  Having  deter- 
mined upon  the  desired  distance,  a  hoe  must  be  selected 
whose  width  shall  be  equal  to  that  distance,  or  one-half 
or  one-third  of  it,  so  that  the  chopping  may  be  systematic- 
ally performed.  The  average  hoe  is  seven  inches  wide, 
and  this  has  been  frequently  a  factor  in  fixing  a  distance 
between  plants  at  14  inches,  so  that  there  would  be  two 
chops  between  the  plants. 

Experienced  choppers  perform  the  work  with  great  ac- 
curacy, and  do  about  two  acres  per  day.  A  matter  of  the 
greatest  importance  in  chopping  cotton  is  to  have  the 
hoes  sharp,  in  order  to  cleanly  cut  the  surperfluous  plants, 
and  not  tear  them  out  of  the  ground,  to  the  detriment  of 
the  remaining  plants.  Care  must  be  exercised  not  to  cut 
the  ground  too  deeply  and  thus  disturb  the  roots  of  the 
young  and  tender  plants.  This,  in  fact,  is  a  point  to  be 
insisted  upon  in  every  stage  of  cultivation. 

Re-Planting. 

If,  after  chopping  out,  any  misfortune  befalls  the  plants 
such  as  late  frost,  or  the  ravages  of  cut  worms,  so  that 
many  scattering  plants  die,  the  first  thing  to  suggest  it- 
self is  re-planting  the  vacant  spaces.  This  must  neces- 
sarily be  done  by  hand,  that  is,  with  the  hoe.  Formerly 
this  was  much  practiced;  but  it  was  in  the  day  when  al.! 
seeds  were  originally  planted  by  hand.  Thus,  re-planting 
in  spots  would  be  cheaper  than  uprooting  the  entire  crop 
and  replanting  all  at  once.  At  the  present  time,  this  lat- 
ter is  almost  universally  resorted  to,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  entire  crop  can  be  re-planted  with  the  cotton  planting 
machine  cheaper  than  planting  the  missing  spots  by  hand; 
enough  cheaper,  in  fact,  to  more  than  pay  for  the  seed  and 
the  expense  of  chopping  out  again.  Procedure  on  the 
above  basis  developed  another  important  point,  which 
has  since  been  applied  as  a  general  principle  to  other  crops 


Fig.  51.     Sulky  Plow  for  Cultivating  Cotton. 


154  PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING. 

as  well, namely :  re-planting  a  crop  produces  plants  of  dif- 
ferent age  from  the  original  planting,  and  hence  in  all 
subsequent  cultivation,  the  operation  which  is  correct  at 
any  given  time  for  the  first  planted  crop,  is  too  early  for 
the  re-planted  crop,  and  vice  versa.  If  proper  judgment 
is  exercised,  however,  in  fixing  the  date  of  planting,  it  is 
extremely  rare  that  any  re-planting  is  necessary.  In  the 
matter  of  frost,  it  must  not  be  too  hastily  assumed  that  the 
young  plant  is  killed  because  it  lies  withered  on  the 
ground.  It  sometimes  happens  that  apparently  dead 
plants  will  revive  after  a  frost,  under  the  right  condition 
of  weather,  and  grow  to  perfect  maturity. 

Plowing. 

When  the  plant  is  about  two  or  three  weeks  old,  the 
first  plowing  for  cultivation  begins.  This  is  generally 
done  with  the  sweep  (6),  which  is  made  in  a  variety 
of  forms,  but  all  having  for  the  central  idea,  a  broad  and 
exceedingly  shallow  cut,  not  exceeding  one-half  inch. 
The  object  of  this  plow  is  to  cut  off  grass  and  weeds- grow- 
ing between  the  rows,  and  to  break  the  hard  crust  on  the 
surface,  all  without  in  the  slightest  degree  cutting  or  dis- 
turbing the  cotton  rcots.  "Deep  preparation  and  shal- 
low cultivation"  musl  be  the  planter's  motto.  This  sort 
of  cultivation  produces  the  effect  of  mulching.  It  keeps 
the  ground  more  moist  then  when  left  to  crust  over.  The 
crust  consists  of  numerous  capillary  tubes  which  bring  up 
moisture  and  let  it  evaporate.  Breaking  up  the  crust  de- 
stroys these  capillaries.  It  has  become  a  homely  proverb 
that  "two  good  plowings  equal  a  rain." 

The  sweep  is  so  constructed  that  two  furrows  with  it 
will  about  cover  the  space  between  the  planted  rows.  Two 
furrows  per  row  of  cotton,  then,  is  the  required  amount  of 
plowing  for  this  operation,  and  one  man  can  plow  four 
acres  per  day. 

This  same  kind  of  plowing  must  be  repeated  about 
every  three  weeks,  at  times  when  the  weather  seems  fa- 


Fig.  52.     Disc  Cultivator  for  Cotton. 


156         PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING. 

vorable,  that  is,  not  too  wet.  Dry  weather  must  never 
interfere.  This  intermittent  plowing  is  kept  up  until  the 
plants  are  well  fruited,  say  August  1st,  thus  requiring 
about  five  plo wings,  or  equal  to  i|  days  work  for  one  plow 
per  acre.  The  number  of  plows  assigned  to  this  work 
may  be  so  proportioned  on  a  large  farm,  that  they  are  just 
able  to  plow  once  around  in  three  weeks,  so  that  when 
they  have  finished  work  at  one  edge  of  the  farm,  the  first 
edge  is  ready  for  the  second  plowing.  The  sweeps  some- 
time leave  a  small  strip  in  the  middles,  which  may  be 
plowed  out  occasionally  with  a  shovel  (3),  if  it  appears  to 
be  necessary.  This  is  colloquially  called  "bursting  out 
middles." 

Hoeing. 

It  is  sometimes,  though  seldom,  considered  profitable 
to  hoe  cotton,  at  intervals  between  plowings.  This  is  to 
cultivate  the  spaces  between  plants  in  the  row,  for  the 
same  purpose  as  plowing  between  the  rows.  Great  care 
is  necessary  in  hoeing  to  avoid  damaging  the  limbs  of 
plants.  The  hoe  must  not  be  raised  more  than  18  inches 
from  the  ground,  and  it  must  never  strike  any  part  of  the 
plant.  It  is,  under  a^  erage  conditions,  of  doubtful  profit 
When  cotton  is  originally  chopped  out,  any  grass  or  weeds- 
disposed  to  germinate  in  the  row  are  supposed  to  be  kill- 
ed, along  with  the  surplus  cotton  plants,  and  the  plowing 
between  rows  is  mostly  sufficient  to  keep  the  entire 
crop  clean.  But,  at  whatever  cost,  the  field  must  be  kept 
clear  of  foreign  vegetation.  It  is  self-evident  that  all  the 
moisture  and  plant  food  consumed  by  foreign  vegetation, 
must  be  drawn  from  that  designed  for  the  planted  crop. 

"Laying  By." 

After  the  last  plowing,  say  one  month  before  the  cotton 
begins  to  open,  the  crop  is  said  to  be  "laid  by,"  and  re- 
quires no  more  work  o*  any  description  until  picking  time. 


Fig.  53.     Cotton  Stalk  Cutter. 


158         PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING. 

Grass  and  weeds  will  grow  in  the  rows  to  some  extent,  but 
as  the  fruit  is  already  developed,  it  does  not  interfere  with 
the  crop. 

All  of  the  work  above  outlined  to  bring  cotton  to  the 
point  of  harvesting  (not  including  possible  extermination 
of  insect  enemies)  consists  of : 

Bedding  and  fertilizing n    furrows  per  row 

Planting 1   furrow  per  row 

Chopping  out.  one  hoeing. 

Cultivating  (five  times) 10  furrows  per  row 

Total  plowing 22  furrows  per  row- 
Total  hoeing,  1. 

When  rows  are  four  feet  apart,  the  total  equivalent  time 
is  one  man  and  one  mule  two  and  three-quarter  days  per 
acre,  one  woman  (to  chop  out)  one-half  day  per  acre. 

Improved  Methods. 

The  foregoing  description  of  the  production  of  a  cotton 
crop  is  applicable  to  the  most  ordinary  farming  in  the  sandy 
soils  on  the  southeastern  seaboard.  In  this  region  bedding  is 
considered  essential,  and  thus,  for  the  reasons  stated,  there 
prevails  the  laborious  system  of  plowing  many  furrows  with 
small  plows,  instead  of  completing  the  operation  with 
fewer  and  deeper  plowings. 

In  many  sections  of  the  country,  it  has  been  found  that 
except  in  low-lying  fields,  where  drainage  is  to  be  con- 
sidered, bedding  is  not  necessary,  and  cotton  is  planted  in 
drills  on  the  level  ground,  in  the  same  way  as  wheat.  This 
method  simplifies  many  of  the  operations,  and  conduces  to 
the  use  of  improved  implements. 

In  this  case,  the  largest  plows  (like  Fig.  49),  may  be 
used  for  breaking  up  ground,  and  if  clods  result  from  such 
plowing,  the  harrow  may  be  used  to  pulverize  them,  with- 
out fear  of  spoiling  the  shape  of  any  beds. 

The  most  advanced  cotton  farmers  now  use  two-horse 


fa 


PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING.  l6l 

sulk}-  plows  for  many  purposes.  For  cultivating  between 
the  rows,  to  keep  clown  weeds  and  grasses,  several  kinds  of 
improved  implements  are  in  use. 

Figure  50  is  a  gang"  plow,  known  as  a  walking- 
cultivator.  A  better  implement  known  as  a  riding  culti- 
vator is  shown  in  Fig.  51.  Beth  of  these  implements  have 
a  tendency  to  plow  too  deep  for  cotton,  unless  intelligently 
managed.  Fig.  52  shows  a  disc  cultivator  that  very  nearly 
approaches  in  action  the  old  fashioned  sweep.  It  will 
shear  off  the  weeds  and  grass  without  danger  of  injury  to 
the  shallow  cotton  roots.  The  discs  are  arranged  to  be  set 
at  any  desired  angle.  They  may  also  be  used  as  a  harrow. 
fhey  may  be  removed  and  any  other  kind  of  plows  put  in 
their  place.  All  of  these  implements  are  arranged  to  strad- 
dle the  cotton  rows. 

Figure  53  is  a  stalk  cutter,  it  is  very  valuable  for  cut- 
ting up  the  cotton  stalks  so  they  may  be  plowed  under. 
Formerly  the  stalks  were  pulled  up  by  the  roots  and  burned, 
thereby  wasting  much  vegetable  matter  which  should  have 
been  returned  to  the  soil.  The  whole  stalks  could  not  be 
plowed  under  without  making  serious  obstruction  to  after- 
cultivation.  But  if  stalks  are  cut  up  hue,  they  may  be 
plowed  under  to  great  advantage.  The  cotton  stalks 
grown  on  one  average  acre  weigh  over  half  a  ton,  and 
contain  about  15  pounds  of  nitrogen.  This  is  nearly  as 
much  nitrogen  as  is  usually  supplied  to  an  acre  of  cotton 
land  in  a  c<  mmcrcial  fertilizer. 

Scientific  stud)'  of  agriculture  has  done  much  to  improve 
the  condition  of  farms  and  farmers.  Intelligent  attention 
to  improved  methods  and  implements  is  making-  the  pro- 
duction of  cotton  one  of  the  most  attractive  of  pursuits. 

Picking  or  Harvesting. 

The  picking  or  harvesting  of  cotton  i.^  generally  com 
menced  in  August  in  the  Southwest,  and  in  September  in 
the  Southeast.      Generally  the  crop  is  picked  over  three 
times,  at  intervals  of  about  one  month:  occasionallv  the 


1 62         PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING. 

crop  is  picked  over  twice;  but  sometimes  four  times;  a! 
exceptional  cases  five  times.  Men,  women  and  children 
engage  in  the  picking.  Pickers  usually  carry  a  sack  strap- 
ped over  their  shoulders,  into  which  the  cotton  is  put  as 
picked.  The  sacks  are  emptied  at  end  of  rows  in  sheets  or 
in  wagons. 

In  the  Southeastern  States  the  cost  of  picking  is  from 
40  to  60  cents  per  hundred  pounds  of  seed  cotton.  In 
Texas  the  cost  ranges  from  60  cents  to  $1  per  hundred 
pounds. 

The  quantity  one  person  can  pick  varies  greatly  with 
the  person.  Children  as  young  as  eight  years  can 
pick  cotton.  Those  of  an  average  of  12  years  can 
pick  20  to  30  pounds  per  day.  Some  adults  can  pick  only 
75  pounds  per  day,  while  others  can  pick  as  much  as  300. 
Most  adult  pickers  con  pick  from  125  to  150  pounds.  Of 
course,  the  quantity  picked  depends  to  a  large  extent  upon 
the  abundance  of  open  cotton  at  the  time  of  picking. 

The  actual  work  of  picking  is  very  light.  The  bending 
of  the  back  makes  the  work  arduous.  Reckoning  one 
man  power  as  the  equivalent  of  one-eighth  horse  power, 
this  amount  is  expended  in  harvesting  about  150  pounds 
of  seed  cotton.  This  is  at  the  rate  of  1,200  pounds  per 
horse  power  per  day.  It  may  be  estimated  that  the 
power  as  now  expended  in  picking  cotton  by  hand  is  not 
more  than  one-tenth  as  efficient  as  the  mechanical  power 
which  is  now  in  use  tor  ginning.  The  great  quantity  of 
labor  required  to  pick  the  crop  by  the  present  inefficient 
hand  method,  limits  the  quantity  of  cotton  that  can  be 
produced  per  capita.  The  cheapness  of  labor  for  cotton 
picking  is  also  an  important  factor.  It  is  related  that 
experiments  in  cotton  culture  have  been  entirely  success- 
ful in  California,  but  that  the  high  price  of  labor  for  pick- 
ing ($1.50  to  $2.50  per  day)  was  prohibitive. 

Cotton  picking  it  75  cents  per  hundred  is  a  cost  of 
about  2}  cents  per  pound  of  lint  cotton.  This  is  one-third 
of  the  average  market  value  of  the  lint. 


Zf. 


■8 


PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING.  1 65 

In  Texas  the  cost  of  picking  is  sometimes  one-half  the 
value  of  the  lint  cotton.  These  proportionate  costs  of 
picking,  viz:  One-third  in  the  Southeast,  and  one-half  in 
the  Southwest,  represent  about  the  limit  that  could  he 
profitably  paid  in  the  respective  sections.  The  difference 
in  limits  is  made  by  the  natural  fertility  of  the  soil  in  the 
Southwest,  whereas  il  is  necessary  on  the  soils  of  the 
Southeast  to  apply  large  quantities  of  fertilizers. 

Referring  to  the  cost  of  labor  in  California,  ($2.50  per 
day),  it  is  readily  seen  that  the  picking  alone  would  cost 
j\  cents  per  pound  of  lint  cotton. 

If  a  machine  could  be  devised,  by  which  the  power  of  a 
man  could  be  applied  with  reasonable  efficiency,  he  could 
pick  ten  times  as  much  as  by  the  present  inefficient  hand 
method.  Assuming  the  present  wages,  this  would  bring 
down  the  ccst  from  ray  2-|  Lents  a  pound  to  \  cent  a  pound. 
If  such  a  machine  could  be  adapted  to  mule  or  hor  e 
power,  the  cost  could  be  still  further  reduced,  even  in  con- 
nection with  higher  wages.  Such  a  machine  would  ma- 
terially increase  the  cotton  producing  area,  which  is  now- 
confined  to  sections  where  there  is  an  abundance  of  cheap 
labor.  The  problem  is  a  difficult  one.  Several  machines 
have  been  built,  but  so  far,  none  have  been  even  approxi- 
mately successful.  Several  cotton  picker  schemes  have 
also  been  made  a  basis  for  selling  the  stock  of  companies 
in  cities  distant  from  the  cotton  growing  section,  when  it 
was  well  known  by  the  speculative  promoters  that  the 
machine  had  no  merit. 

The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  invention  of  a  success- 
ful cotton  picker  do  not  appear  greater  than  those  that 
were  in  the  way  of  inventing  a  reaper  and  binder,  or  of  a 
sewing  machine.  The  chief  difficulty  which  seems  to 
stand  in  the  way  of  s  successful  machine  is  that  it  must 
pick  the  cotton  which  is  open,  without  iniuring  the  p'ant. 
or  any  of  the  unopened  bolls. 

The  production  of  a  successful  cotton  picking  machine 
would  seem  to  be  the  most  attractive  legitimate  field  now 
open  for  inventive  talent. 


l66         PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING. 

TABLE  III. 

SHOWING  ESTIMATED  VALUE  OF  A  SUCCESS- 
FUL COTTON  PICKING  MACHINE. 

Average  value  of  a  10  million  bale  crop.  .  .  .  $300,000,000 

Average  cost  of  hand  picking  at  66  2-3  cents 

per  100  pounds per  bale  10 

Whole  cost  of  hand  picking  10  million  bales.  .  100,000,000 

A  machine  increasing  efficiency  tenfold 
would  reduce  cost  of  picking  10  million 
bales  to    10.000.000 

Saving  by  cotton  picking  machine,  10  mil- 
lion bales  (or  $9  per  bale) 90,000.000 

Allow  for  cost    of    maintenance  of  machine 

and  mule  at  $1  per  bale;  10  million  bales.  .     10,000,000 

Estimated  net  saving  ($8  per  bale) 80,000,000 

Insect  Enemies — The  Caterpillar. 

The  first  pest  which  became  familiar  to  cotton  growers 
of  the  United  States  was  the  caterpillar  or  cotton  worm 
(Aletia  argillacea).  It  is  a  slender  bluish  worm  with  small 
black  spots,  and  sometimes  with  black  stripes  down  its 
back.  Its  average  length  is  one  and  one-half  inch. 
It  is  the  larva  of  an  clive  gray  moth  measuring  one  to  one 
and  a  half  inches  from  tip  to  tip  of  wing.  This  moth  hiber- 
nates in  the^  Southern  States  in  rank  wire-grass  or  other 
sheltering  plants.  It  comes  out  in  the  early  spring  and 
lives  on  whatever  blossoms  it  may  find.  Only  a  small 
per  cent,  of  the  moths  live  through  the  winter.  As  soon 
as  cotton  plants  are  one  to  two  inches  high  they  lay  Qgg=> 
on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf,  during  the  night.  One  moth 
will  lay  about  500  eggs.  If  the  weather  is  warm  the  eggs 
will  hatch  in  three  to  four  days,  or  if  cold,  they  require 
sometimes  more  than  a  week,  and  sometimes  many  of  the 
first  crop  fail,  altogether.        The  larva  or  worm  state  is 


I 


w 


PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING.  171 

from  one  to  three  weeks,  during  which  period  its  capacity 
for  destroying  cotton  leaves  is  something  incredible.  At 
the  end  of  this  stage,  it  spins  a  web  around  itself  within  a 
folded  leaf,  and  remains  as  chrysalis  for  from  10  to  30  days, 
when  it  appears  as  a  moth.  It  begins  to  lay  eggs  when 
from  two  to  four  days  old,  so  that  the  period  of  reproduc- 
tion from  the  birth  of  one  moth  through  the  successive 
stages  to  the  next  moth  is  about  50  to  60  days. 

The  most  improved  method  of  combating  the  cater- 
pillar is  to  poison  them  with  Paris  green.  The  best  way  to 
apply  it  is  to  put  it  into  bags  of  coarse  cotton  cloth,  about 
four  inches  diameter,  ten  inches  long.  One  of  these  bags 
is  attached  so  it  will  lie  horizontally,  to  each  end  of  a  poie 
about  five  feet  long.  A  man  carries  this  crosswise  on  the 
back  of  a  mule,  and  rides  down  a  cotton  row,  gently  and 
regularly  jarring  the  pole,  dusting  out  the  poison  on  two 
adjacent  rows  at  a  time.  He  can  poison  15  to  20  acres  per 
day.  It  is  evident  that  any  remedy  of  whatever  nature 
should  be  applied  during  the  first  generations  of  the  cat- 
erpillar, while  the  weather  is  least  favorable  for  their  prop- 
agation, and  before  their  multiplication.  A  caterpillar  of 
the  first  generation  produces  a  moth  which  lays  500  eggs, 
whose  descendents  lay  500  eggs  each,  so  that  the  fifth 
generation  would,  without  mishap,  number  over  60  billion 
descendants  from  one  caterpillar  of  the  first  generation. 

The  BolUWorm. 

Systematic  efforts  at  poisoning,  together  with  the  othcr 
•causes,  alluded  to,  have  practically  exterminated  the  cot- 
ton caterpillar  from  the  United  States,  but  another  pesi 
has  grown  up  which,  though  not  yet  very  formidable,  may 
in  the  absence  of  remedial  measures,  become  quite 
troublesome.  This  is  the  boll-worm  (Heliothis  armiger) 
It  is  in  appearance  much  the  same  as  the  leaf  caterpillar, 
but  is  subject  to  much  variation  in  color.  It  is  the  larva 
of  a  moth,  similar  in  general  appearance  to  the  moth  of  the 
leaf  caterpillar,  but  with  a  heavier  body,  and  is  also  subject 


IJ2  PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING. 

to  considerable  variation  in  color  and  markings.  Eggs 
hatch  in  from  two  to  seven  days,  li  the  eggs  are  laid  op. 
the  cotton  plant,  ihe  larva  travels  over  the  plant,  feeding 
on  leaves  until  it  rinds  a  boll  or  bud.  into  either  of  which 
it  will  bore.  After  a  time,  it  will  leave  the  bud  or  boll  in 
search  of  another. 

The  fact  that  the  boll-worm,  unlike  the  caterpillar,  pre- 
fers other  plants  for  food,  if  they  are  available,  renders 
effective  a  series  of  "trap  crops."  This  consists  in  plant- 
ing in  the  cotton  field  a  few  rows  of  corn  to  mature  at 
different  times,  and  in  cutting  and  destroying  this  corn  aL 
such  periods  as  will  catch  the  successive  generations  of 
worms. 

Hexican  Boll=Weevil. 

The  only  other  pest  that  seems  at  the  present  to  be  of 
any  importance  to  the  cotton  plant,  is  the  Mexican  cotton 
boll  weevil  (Anthronomus  grandis).  It  is  a  small  grayish 
beetle  about  one-quarter  inch  long.  This  beetle  corres- 
ponds, in  the  cycle  of  propagation,  to  the  moths,  previous- 
ly described.  Its  larvae,  like  those  of  the  moths,  are 
the  real  enemy,  but  it  is  generally  alluded  to  as  the 
weevil  (and  not  the  worm)  because  it  is  most  in  evidence 
in  the  weevil  stage,  the  larvae  being  mostly  hidden  in  buds 
and  bolls. 

The  weevil  hibernates  in  rubbish  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  On  the  first  warm  days  of  spring  they  fly  in 
search  of  volunteer  cotton  plants  or  occasional  green 
sprigs,  that  in  wet  seasons  come  out  on  the  old  cotton 
stalks  left  standing  from  last  crop.  They  feed  on  the 
green  leaves,  and  when  the  buds  appear,  lay  eggs  in  them 
Thus,  the  first  generation  or  two  thrive  until  planted  cot- 
ton appears,  which  is  at  once  attacked.  As  soon  as  the 
egg  is  laid  in  a  bud.  and  the  larva  develops,  the  bud  drops 
on  the  ground,  where  the  larva  finally  transforms  to  chrys- 
alis, and  produces  another  weevil.  The  total  period  from 
weevil  to  weevil  is  about  ^o  days. 


PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING.  1 75 

The  weevil  seems  to  have  been  first  noticed  in  1862  near 
Monclova,  Mexico,  and  became  so  numerous  there,  where 
cotton  was  being  planted,  that  the  entire  venture  had  to 
be  abandoned.  It  has  appeared  in  greater  or  less  num- 
bers wherever  cotton  has  been  planted  in  Mexico. 
Lately,  it  has  found  its  way  into  Texas,  where  it  has  done 
considerable  damage.  It  is  believed  that  it  cannot  thrive 
in  a  more  northern  latitude. 

As  the  larvae  do  their  destructive  work  entirely  within 
bolls  and  buds,  it  is  impossible  to  poison  them  by  any  of 
the  usual  means,  so  that  the  only  hope  of  combating  the 
evil  is : 

(1)  To  so  arrange  the  conditions  of  culture  that  it  be- 
comes difficult  for  them  to  hibernate. 

(2)  To  destroy  the  very  earliest  weevils  as  they  emerge 
from  winter  quarters  before  they  deposit  eggs. 

The  first  method  is  considered  the  proper  one, 
and  the  second  only  as  supplementary  to  the  first.  The 
first,  or  cultural  method,  consists  in  so  cleaning  up  the 
old  fields  after  gathering  the  crop,  that  there  shall  be  no 
rubbish  in  the  vicinity  in  which  the  weevils  may  find  a 
place  to  hibernate.  Old  stalks  should  be  thoroughly 
pulled  up  by  the  roots,  or  if  this  is  impracticable,  the 
stalks  should  be  plowed  up,  and  m  either  case,  piled 
and  burned.  This  is  to  be  followed  by  deep  plowing 
throughout  the  field,  in  order  to  turn  under  and  destroy 
any  stray  weevils,  and  at  the  same  time  to  upturn  any 
chrysalides  which  may  attempt  to  hibernate  in  the 
ground.  This  method  at  the  same  time  destroys  the  in- 
sects, and  puts  the  fields  in  a  condition  unfavorable  to 
volunteer  cotton. 

The  second  method  is  to  poison  all  volunteer  cotton, 
so  that  the  weevil  is  killed  at  its  first  feeding.  This  may 
be  supplemented  by  protecting  certain  small  patches  of 
cotton  through  the  winter,  and  watering  it  so  that  it  will 
throw  out  early  green  leaves.  These  leaves  are  poisoned 
and  all  volunteer  cotton  kept  killed  down.  Poison  for 
this  purpose  is  best  applied  in  a  liquid  state  with  a  small 
spraying  pump. 


Ijb         PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING. 
Cut  Worm. 

At  present,  the  least  important  pest  to  the  cotton  plant 
is  the  cut  worm  ( Feltia  annexa,  and  others). 

Conditions  might  exist,  in  which  this  worm  might  be 
important.  It  is  the  same  worm  which  attacks  cabbages 
and  other  vegetables,  and  the  damage  done  is  of  the  same 
character,  viz:  cutting  off  at  night  the  young  plant,  at  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  Heretofore,  it  has  not  been  found 
necessary  to  take  any  measures  against  this  worm  in  the 
cotton  fields,  but  it  is  recommended  if  found  necessary, 
that  the  same  methods  be  employed  as  in  garden  culture, 
namely:  the  trap  system,  in  which  a  crop  of  some  early 
grass  is  planted  and  sprayed  broadcast  with  some  strong- 
poison,  then  cut  and  thrown  in  bunches  throughout  the 
fields  before  the  young  plants  appear. 

Classification  and  Spinning  Qualities  of  Cotton. 

Most  of  the  elements  governing  the  production  of 
waste  in  a  cotton  mill  originate  with  the  cotton  planter, 
and  increase  as  they  pass  en  through  the  hands  of  the  gin- 
ner  and  the  buyers.  The  planter  often  puts  in  any  kind 
of  seed  that  he  happens  to  have,  and  plants  early  or  late, 
as  it  suits  his  convenience.  He  knows  his  price  is  regu- 
lated in  Liverpool  by  the  average  of  the  American  crop, 
and  does  not  largely  depend  upon  the  individual 
merit  of  the  cotton,  so  long  as  it  passes  the  conventional 
grading  of  the  local  cotton  buyer.  The  same  reason  that 
retards  individual  development  of  improved  cotton  grow 
ing.  influences  the  planter,  making  him  indifferent  about 
the  ginning  and  the  subsequent  handling. 

But  the  conditions  of  the  cotton  market  are  changing. 
Liverpool  is  no  longer  the  sole  arbiter.  Local  mills  are 
consuming  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  local  cotton,  that 
the  price  and  the  conditions  of  sale  are  being  largely  ef- 
fected by  them.  This  gives  a  magnificent  opportunity  for 
mills  in  cotton  growing  territory  to  make  finer  discrimi- 


PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING.  1 77 

nation  in  the  character  of  the  cotton  they  consume,  and 
make  the  price  of  each  individual  lot  of  cotton  commen- 
surate with  the  ultimate  spinning  quality,  rather  than 
with  the  "grades." 

In  the  absence  of  any  good  system  of  testing  character 
and  strength  of  individual  cotton  fibres,  the  mill  must  re- 
ly upon  practical  spinning  tests.  These  soon  show,  if 
carefully  observed,  that  the  cotton  grown  by  a  careful 
planter  gives  better  results  in  the  matter  of  waste,  and  of 
breaking  strength  and  general  appearance  of  yarn.  If  -1 
higher  price  is  paid  tor  such  cotton,  and  a  lower  price  paid 
for  others,  there  will  arise  an  emulation  among  the  plant- 
ers that  will  most  certainly  improve  the  quality  of  cotton 
and  of  mill  products. 

There  are  many  facts  about  cotton  that  are  now  well 
known,  but  which  have  been  disregarded  on  account  of 
the  market  conditions.  But  these  may  now  reach  great 
prominence  if  properly  stimulated  by  the  mill  men.  For 
example,  cotton  that  is  planted  late,  has  not  time  to  ma- 
ture the  fibres,  and  attain  uniformity  of  strength  and 
smoothness  and  length.  Even  when  it  is  planted  in  time 
the  "top  crop"  is  sometimes  stunted  by  early  frosts,  and 
the  same  bad  result  is  produced.  Uniformity  in  length  of 
staple  is  of  prime  importance,  even  more  than  length  in 
the  abstract.  A  mill  with  its  machinery  adjusted  for  | 
inch  staple  has  better  results  on  fibres  uniformly  |  inches 
long  than  with  some  1  |  inches  long. 

Uniformity  in  length,  as  well  as  in  other  characteristics, 
is  most  conserved  by  uniformity  in  the  variety  and  ma- 
turity of  the  seed  sown,  though  also  influenced  by  uni- 
formity of  soil  and  culture  and  fertilization.  Careful  sort- 
ing of  the  grades,  according  to  maturity  and  general  ap- 
pearance, while  the  cotton  is  being  harvested,  is  of  the  ut- 
most importance.  And  finally,  the  cotton  thus  carefully 
grown  and  assorted  should  be  as  carefully  ginned.  The 
average  public  ginnery  is  equipped  for  quantity  of  out 
turn,  rather  than  quality.     This  is  the  logical  outgrowth 


178         PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING. 

of  the  system  of  grading  and  pricing  American  cotton  in 
Liverpool,  based  on  the  average  crop  and  conditions. 
The  new  conditions,  by  reason  of  which  the  local  mills 
have  a  voice  in  the  price  and  grading  of  cotton,  should 
bring  about  a  reform  in  the  matter  of  ginning,  on  the 
same  lines  as  the  reform  in  raising  cotton.  Each  public 
ginnery  should  be  equipped  with  at  least  one  roller  gin 
for  handling  long  staple  and  other  fine  grades  of  cot- 
ton. These  gins  turn  out  very  much  less  product  per  day 
than  the  standard  saw  gins,  and  therefore  the  ginner  is 
entitled  to  a  higher  price  for  the  service.  Where  ordi- 
nary saw  ginning  of  ordinary  cotton  is  worth  $1  per  bale, 
it  might  be  easily  worth  $4  to  $5  per  bale,  to  the  owner  of 
fine  grades  of  cotton,  to  have  it  ginned  slowly,  on  a  ma- 
chine that  would  in  nc  way  injure  the  quality.  This  is,  of 
course,  based  on  the  assumption  that  neighboring  cotton 
mills  would  learn  to  appreciate  the  advantages  of  handling 
cotton  which  has  been  carefully  selected,  and  carefully 
treated,  at  every  step.  This  condition  of  reform  must  be 
brought  about  by  the  mutual  reactions  between  the 
planter,  the  ginner  and  the  cotton  spinner.  Even  in  the 
event  that  any  given  cotton  mill  is  not  in  a  position  to 
itself  spin  these  finer  grades,  it  might  pay  to  buy  it,  never- 
theless, and  resell  tc  some  other  mill  in  order  to 
encourage  the  planter  to  produce  better  cotton. 
On  the  other  hand,  even  if  the  planter  does  not 
receive  as  high  a  price  as  he  thinks  right  for  his 
finer  cotton,  he  should  encourage  the  mills  to  make  dis- 
tinctions, for  the  sake  of  finally  reaching  the  point  where 
he  can  afford  to  grow'  the  finest  grades  and  demand  the 
highest  prices. 

The  seed  for  planting  should  be  carefully  selected  from 
the  plants  which  produce  the  best  lint.  They  should  not 
be  taken  from  the  first  pickings,  so  early  as  to  make  lia- 
bility to  heat,  nor  from  the  last  picking,  where  both  fibre 
and  seed  are  stunted  by  frost  or  chili}-  weather.  Seed  se- 
lected at  the  proper  season  will  produce  cotton  that  will 


PLANTING,  CULTIVATION  AND    HARVESTING.  l8l 

spin  better,  and  make  less  loss,  than  that  grown  from  seed 
taken  at  random. 

When  cotton  is  planted  late,  the  crop  gins  badly.  The 
fibre  is  easily  pulled  by  the  gin  saws  from  the  seed  and  is 
brittle,  and  hence  such  lint  is  full  of  broken  fibres.  Such 
cotton  makes  a  large  loss  in  the  picker  ro  im,  and  the  ends 
break  down  badly  in  the  spinning  room. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

flTmrfcetino  Cotton. 

When  cotton  was  produced  on  plantations  by  means  of 
slave  labor,  preceding  i860,  it  was  sold  in  two  ways. 
Those  planting  on  a  small  scale  loaded  the  cotton  in 
wagons,  carried  it  to  the  market  town,  distances  of  two  to 
fifty  miles  from  the  plantation.  The  market  season  was 
in  the  autumn  or  winter.  In  this  season,  the  roads  were 
generally  bad;  but  happily  there  was  at  this  same  season 
not  much  other  occupation  for  teams  and  teamsters,  there- 
fore, the  time  necessary  to  make  these  long  trips  was  not 
a  matter  of  consequence.  Arriving  in  the  market  town, 
buyers  would  approach  a  wagon,  learn  who  the  owner 
was,  and  enter  into  negotiations  for  its  purchase.  The 
beginning  of  the  negotiation  was  to  cut  through  the  bag- 
ging covering  the  cotton,  draw  out  a  sample — a  good 
handful,  weighing  prcbably  a  quarter  of  a  pound.  The 
trade  might  be  concluded  on  the  street,  or  the  trade 
might  be  concluded  in  the  buyer's  office  or  counting- 
house.  The  sample  became  a  perquisite  of  the  buyer 
and  was  considered  by  the  planter  of  no  consequence. 
By  keeping  all  these  samples  in  a  place  provided  for  them, 
the  buyer  would  sometimes  accumulate  several  bales  of 
cotton  in  a  season.  Generally  the  planter  would  nego- 
tiate with  a  numlber  ot  buyers  before  closing  a  trade,  and 
always  sold  to  the  highest  bidder.  This  method  of  mar- 
keting the  crop  was  very  economical,  and  always  brought 
the  highest  price. 

The  larger  planters  followed  another  system.  They 
would  contract  with  a  firm  of  commission  merchants  to 
buy  their  supplies  and  sell  their  cotton.  Throughout  the 
year,  the  planter  would  write  to  the  commission  mer- 
chant for  such  supplies  as  he  might  need — one  or  more 
barrels  of  su^ar,  molasses,  coffee,  rice  or  such  other  ar- 


MARKETIAG    COTTON.  183 

tides  as  he  might  need.  The  commission  merchant  would 
simply  keep  an  open  account  against  the  planter  for  all 
these  purchases.  He  would  either  arrange  with  the  mer- 
chants from  whom  he  purchased  them,  for  credits,  or  pay 
with  his  own  capital,  or  borrow  from  bankers.  The  plan- 
ter's account,  based  on  the  cotton  he  would  ship,  was  con- 
sidered a  good  basis  of  credit.  At  the  end  of  the  season, 
the  planter  would  send  his  cotton  to  the  commission  mer- 
chant, who  would  sell  it,  and  place  the  proceeds  to  the 
credit  of  the  planter.  Some  planters  would  keep  good 
balances  with  the  commission  man,  and  also  good  bal- 
ances in  the  bank;  but  many  of  them,  after  paying  the 
yearly  accounts,  would  spend  the  balances,  and  raise  a 
crop  the  next  year  on  their  credit  with  the  commission 
man.  The  commission  men  were,  in  many  cases,  men  of 
ample  means,  but  in  other  cases  they  were  men  of  scant 
means,  and  traded  on  the  credit  of  the  planters  they  rep- 
resented. That  class  of  planters  who  dealt  through  com- 
mission merchants  made  money  easily  and  spent  it  freely. 
They  often  made  trips  to  New  York,  and  sometimes  to 
Europe,  and  would  make  drafts  on  the  commission  man 
with  a  free  hand.  It  was  not  infrequent  for  the  commis- 
sion man  to  fail,  because  of  too  much  confidence  in  the 
liberal  planter's  capacity  to  pay. 

During  the  Civil  War  the  cotton  markets  were  prac- 
tically closed.  Very  little  cotton  was  produced.  Some 
little  of  this  was  exported  in  vessels  that  "ran  the  block- 
ade." On  many  plantations,  small  lots  of  cotton  were 
stored,  and  some  was  supplied  to  the  Confederate  govern- 
ment. When  the  war  ended,  those  who  happened  to  have 
a  little  cotton  on  hand,  found  the  cash  proceeds  an  im- 
mense help  in  getting  a  new  start  in  putting  in  new  crops. 
The  victorious  Federal  Government  confiscated  much  of 
the  cotton  that  was  found  immediately  after  the  war.  To 
avoid  this,  the  cotton  that  was  held  when  the  war  ended, 
was  hauled  out  into  the  forests,  and  hid  until  an  opportu- 
nity could  be  found  to  sell  it.        Thus  exposed    to    the 


184  MARKETING    COTTON. 


but  cotton  was  high  in  price,  and  ic  would  readily  sell  in 
spite  of  the  damage. 

After  the  abolition  of  slavery  and  the  end  of  the  war, 
many  of  the  old  commission  firms  were  reorganized,  and 
many  new  ones  were  formed.  Cotton  was  high,  and  was 
again  an  attractive,  but  precarious  basis  of  credit.  Plant- 
ers devised  systems  of  working  negroes  for  shares  of  the 
crop  they  made.  The  freedmen  had,  of  course,  no  money 
for  his  living;  the  commission  man,  in  turn,  advanced  thesj 
supplies  to  the  planter,  under  a  contract  to  have  a  fixed 
number  of  bales  of  cotton  s'hipped  to  be  sold  by  the  com- 
mission man  at  $1.50  a  bale  commission,  besides  interest 
at  10  to  30  per  cent,  on  the  money  value  of  the  supplies 
delivered.  Thus,  for  the  supplies  advanced,  the  commis- 
sion man  received  three  different  compensations:  (1) 
The  commission  on  the  cotton  to  be  sold;  (2)  10  to  30 
per  cent,  interest;  (3)  a  profit  on  the  supplies  shipped, 
which  ranged  from  10  to  40  per  cent.,  besides  making  a 
charge  for  insurance,  storage  and  other  expenses. 

The  commission  man,  in  turn,  borrowed  money  from 
the  banks  or  Northern  merchants,  with  which  to  do  this 
business.  Some  of  these  commission  men,  or  factors, 
who  were  careful  and  exacting,  became  wealthy,  but  many 
of  them  failed.  The  risks  were  very  great,  because  of  the 
disturbed  and  disorderly  political  conditions.  Many  ne- 
groes would  start  to  grow  a  crop,  anil  never  finish  it.  Tue 
advances  made  to  these  would  be  a  total  loss.  In  this  way 
many  planters  would  be  unable  to  pay  their  debts,  and  the 
commission  man  or  factor,  would,  in  turn,  lose  what  he 
had  advanced  to  the  planter. 

A  lien  law  was  passed,  by  which  a  planter  or  merchant 
at  the  beginning  of  a  season,  could  take  a  mortgage  on  a 
crop  not  yet  made,  in  order  to  secure  advances.  Even 
with  liens  in  force,  the  tenant  or  renter  would  often  smug- 
gle one  or  more  bales  of  cotton  to  market,  and  get  away 
with  the  proceeds.       This  system  of  liens,  advances  and 


MARKETING    COTTON.  1 85 

sales  through  commission  men  has  been  gradually  dimin- 
ishing. Merchants  failed,  planters  failed  and  tenants  got 
such  poor  results  that  the  whole  system  grew  unpopular 
and  unsatisfactory.  Large  plantations  began  to  be  cut  up 
into  farms  and  sold,  and  this  process  is  now  going  on. 

Railways  have  been  extensively  built,  and  now  most 
farms  are  within  a  reasonable  distance  of  a  railway  station 
where  there  is  a  market.  There  is  accumulated  capital 
now,  and  the  local  merchant  can  extend  reasonable  credit 
to  the  neighboring  tanner,  white  or  black,  and  these  can 
sell  their  own  cotton  and  cotton  seed  for  cash,  and  pav 
their  bills  to  the  merchant  in  cash.  The  large  commission 
house  or  factor  is  now  gone.  The  large  plantation  is 
practically  passing.  It  survives  now  in  its  original  state 
only  among  the  bottom  lands  of  the  Mississippi  River,  Red 
River  and  Ouachita  River,  where  the  coarsest  and  most 
ignorant  type  of  negroes  seem  to  have  gathered,  and  con- 
tinue to  gather.  In  these  fertile,  but  unhealthy  bottoms, 
large  plantations  may  yet  be  held  together  and  profitably 
operated,  for  some  time  to  come. 

Texas  is  being  rapidly  settled  by  thrifty  white  immi- 
grants on  small  farms.  Some  of  these  farmers  come  from 
the  East  and  some  from  the  Northwest,  while  many  are 
Germans  and  Swedes,  who  come  direct  from  Europe 
The  river  bottom  planters  still  do  business  with  surviv- 
ing commission  houses  and  factors  in  New  Orleans.  The 
Texas  farmer  usually  sells  his  cotton  for  cash  in  the  near- 
by market  town. 

The  modern  farmer,  white  or  black,  usually  carries  his 
cotton  to  market,  one  or  two  bales  at  a  time,  in  a  one  or 
two  horse  wagon.  Sometimes  he  will  carry  about  1,000 
pounds  cotton  seed  and  one  bale  of  cotton  in  the  same 
wagon.  The  seeds  have  now  as  ready  sale  for  cash  as 
cotton. 

Many  farmers  now  ask  for  no  credit  or  advances.  Fol- 
lowed up  on  modern  lines,  the  cotton  farm  is  a  profitable 
property,  and  many  farmers  are  not  only  without  need 


186  MARKETING   COTTON. 

for  advances,  but  are  making  and  accumulating  money. 
Twelve  years  ago,  the  prospects  for  the  cotton  farmer 
seemed  gloomy;  this  is  now  entirely  changed,  and  the 
thrifty  farmer,  near  a  manufacturing  centre,  has  good 
credits,  and  makes  good  money. 

Those  who  still  own  large  tracts  of  land,  finding  it  un- 
profitable under  the  tenant  or  share  systems  of  working, 
and  observing  that  neighboring  farmers  doing  their  own 
work  with  some  hired  help  are  prosperous,  are  perfectly 
willing  to  cut  up  the  large  tracts  into  farms,  and  sell  them 
to  good  farmers  on  long  credits. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

Cbe  plantation  During  anfc>  after  tbc 
Civil  Mar. 

It  has  been  shown  on  about  what  basis  of  profit  the 
plantation  could  be  operated  with  slave  labor. 

Paralyzing  Influence  of  the  War. 

During  the  Civil  War,  the  cause  of  which  was  primarily 
the  differences  between  the  free  States  and  slave  States 
about  the  institution  of  slavery,  there  was  practically  no 
cotton  raised,  except  for  domestic  use  and  the  use  of  the 
Confederate  government.  The  able  bodied  white  people 
went  to  the  war,  and  the  energies  of  the  negroes  were  ap- 
plied to  the  production  of  food  stuffs,  clothing  and  other 
supplies  for  the  armies.  All  export  and  import  trade  be- 
tween the  cotton  growing  States  and  the  rest  of  the  world 
was  stopped  by  means  of  blockade  by  the  navy  of  the  free 
States.  While  the  war  was  begun  for  the  preservation  of 
the  union  of  States,  it  soon  transpired  that  as  strong  a 
motive,  if  not  stronger,  among  the  free  States,  was  the 
abolition  of  slavery.  The  conflict  became  one  of  gigantic 
proportions,  the  enlisted  forces  on  the  one  side  aggregat- 
ing about  2,600,000,  ?nd  those  of  the  other  about  600,000. 
Having  given  practically  all  its  attention  to  the  develop- 
ment of  agriculture,  in  the  period  immediately  preceding 
the  war,  the  Southern  States,  when  shut  off  from  com- 
merce by  blockade,  found  themselves  not  only  without 
many  manufactured  articles,  but  also  without  many  of 
what  are  usually  considered  the  necessities  of  life.  There 
was  no  adequate  supply  of  sugar,  no  coffee,  no  adequate 
supply  of  salt,  no  tea  no  materials  for  ladies'  dresses,  ex- 
cept homespuns.  In  slavery  times,  meat  was  cured  by 
packing  it  in  salt  a  few  days,  and  then  hanging  it  over- 
head in  a  smoke  hoi  se.     In  being  smoked  it  would  drv. 


1 88  DURING    AND  AFTER   THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

and  the  salt  would  fall  off.  During  the  war,  many  a 
plantation  got  its  salt  supply  by  digging  the  earth  out  of 
the  smoke  house,  putting  it  in  a  hopper,  pouring  through 
water  to  leach  it  oat  and  then  boiling  out  the  water  to 
get  the  residual  salt.  Parched  corn,  sassafras,  sage, 
parched  oats  and  other  substitutes  for  tea  and  coffee  were 
tried  and  much  used.  Home  made  molasses,  in  place  of 
sugar,  became  genei  al,  and  homespun  clothes  for  fine 
ladies,  the  fashion.  In  all  privations,  the  negroes  cheer- 
full)-  and  loyally  participated,  and  there  was  never  a  mur- 
mur of  discontent.  At  home,  on  the  plantation,  the  plan- 
ter always  stood  for  the  defence  of  his  negroes.  In  war 
he  assumed  again  to  do  all  the  fighting  for  himself  and 
his.  The  negroes  were  never  called  upon  to  strike  a  sin- 
gle blow  in  the  war  on  the  Southern  side,  and  their  loyal- 
ty to  the  man  who  was  doing  the  fighting  was  perfection 
itself.  Subsequent  events  exhibited  that  this  was  a  loyal- 
ty that  was  not  innate  in  the  negro  character,  but  had  been 
developed  by  the  preceding  conditions  and  events. 

As  a  result  of  the  war,  slavery  was  abolished,  and  the 
seceding  Southern  States  returned  into  the  Union.  The 
Confederate  States  ceased  to  be,  and  the  United  States, 
now  all  free  States,  became  again  a  single  nation,  made 
up  of  all  the  States. 

Negro  Suffrage. 

Besides  bringing  the  seceding  States  back  into  the  Un- 
ion and  abolishing  slavery,  the  victors  in  the  conflict  also 
determined  to  give  the  right  of  ballot  to  the  freedmen. 
In  a  number  of  the  States,  these  fieedmen  were  in  the 
majority.  Besides  the  great  political  problem  thus  cre- 
ated, it  was  necessary  also  to  take  up  and  formulate  some 
system  of  labor.  The  war  had  practically  swept  away  all 
property,  in  the  slave  States,  except  land,  and  that  was 
much  depreciated  by  the  destruction  of  the  labor  system 
and  the  want  of  working  capital.  Cotton  was  high  in 
price,  because  of  scarcity — for  four  years  none  had  been 
supplied  to  the  markets. 


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DURING    AND  AFTER  THE  CIVIL  WAR.  191 

Carpet  Bag  Government. 

For.  ten  years,  even  at  high  prices,  no  profit  was  made  in 
growing  cotton.  For  ten  years  the  confusion — political, 
commercial,  agricultural  and  social — was  worse  than  con- 
founded. Whole  legislatures  could  be  suborned  for  any 
corrupt  purpose,  and  riots  were  frequent. 

The  corrupt  leaders  of  the  negroes  organized  them  into 
militia  companies,  and  infamous  secret  political  societies, 
known  as  the  Union  League.  The  whites  organized  rifle 
companies  and  the  Ku-Klux-Klan,  which  was  a  secret 
organization  for  resisting  the  corrupt  actions  of  carpet 
bag  governments. 

In  this  period  of  ten  years,  and  in  spite  of  all  this  dis- 
order, the  whites  md  blacks  were  producing  cotton;  the 
white  man  owning  the  land  and  the  black  man  working  it. 
The  schemes  of  work  and  compensations  were  various. 
Sometimes  the  planter  would  rent  land  to  a  negro  tenant 
for  a  fixed  quantity  oi  lint  cotton;  sometimes  for  a  propor- 
tionate part  of  the  crop;  and  sometimes  he  would  pay  the 
hands  agreed  wages  by  the  year.  The  longer  the  con- 
fused conditions  lasted,  the  more  unreliable  the  negro  be- 
came as  a  laborer,  although  there  were  notable  excep- 
tions. It  was  the  rule  for  them  to  drift  into  the  idea  that 
freedom  meant  license,  and  the  franchise  an  asset. 

New  Basis  of  Compensations. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  give  even  approximately  the 
different  experiments  in  the  way  of  contracts  made  by  the 
white  land-owners  with  the  freedmeu.  A  few  are  defined 
as  follows  : 

(  1 )  The  landlord  would  furnish  land  and  mules,  receiv- 
ing as  rent  and  for  use  of  mules,  one-third  the  crop,  the 
tenant  furnishing  his  own  living.  Even  in  this  case,  the 
landlord  would  have  to  "advance"  the  supplies  for  a  liv- 
ing, or  guarantee  the  account  with  some  merchant  f<~>r 
these  supplies. 


Iy2  DURING   AND  AfTER  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

(2)  The  landlord  would  furnish  the  tenant  with  land, 
mule  and  an  agreed  quantity  of  supplies,  and  they  would  di- 
vide the  crop  equal1;.. 

(3)  The  land-owner  would  contract  with  the  laborer  for 
a  year,  paying  about  $50  to  $100  per  year,  and  furnishing 
supplies  as  agreed. 

(4)  The  land-owner  would  rent  land  to  a  tenant  for  a 
fixed  quantity  of  cotton.  A  farm  of  30  acres  would  rent 
for  about  three  bales  of  cotton,  or  about  one  bale  for  ten 
acres.  These  rent  bales  would  be  worth  $30  to  $40  each, 
equivalent  to  about  $3  per  acre  for  land.  Although  this 
would  represent  a  good  income  on  land  worth  $5 
to  $10  per  acre,  land  was  difficult  to  sell  at  these  prices, 
because  of  the  precariousn^o  ui  collection.  The  negro 
tenants  were  generally  unreliable. 

After  1876,  polh.cal  conditions  were  very  much  im- 
proved. The  negroes  had  also  acquired  some  education 
and  some  knowledge  of  what  freedom  really  meant. 
Those  who  had  fori  erly  been  planters  had  acquired  by 
experience  some  knowledge  of  the  freedman,  who,  by  the 
way,  proved  to  be  a  totally  different  person  from  the 
slave,  even  though  the  same  individual. 

Industrial  Renaissance. 

With  the  restoration  of  political  order,  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  better  understanding  between  blacks  and 
whites,  the  retrogressive  movement  of  the  last  decade 
changed,  and  things  began  to  look  much  better. 

Cotton  seed  oil  mills  caught  the  attention  of  those  who 
were  progressive.  These  prospered  with  'negro  labor. 
On  the  farms,  negroes  still  objected  to  working  under 
overseers.  In  the  oil  mills,  they  made  no  objection  to 
superintendents  and  foremen. 

Cotton  mills  also  began  to  be  built,  and  these  employed 
white  labor  exclusively.  This  gave  profitable  employ- 
ment to  a  class  who  weie  in  urgent  need  of  it.  These 
manufactures  erew  in  an  increasing  ratio,  and  others  were 


DURING    AND  AFTER  THE  CIVII*  WAR.  193 

formulated  and  established.  Farmers  found  that  the  new 
factory  populations  made  good  markets  for  the  perish- 
able products  of  the  farm,  which  before  had  been  worth 
less.  Gradually  as  these  interests  grewr,  all  labor,  white 
and  black,  became  more  reliable  and  more  efficient.  By 
the  year  1900,  there  has  developed  in  the  Southeast,  or 
Piedmont  region,  occupation  at  moderate  compensation 
for  practically  all  who  are  willing  to  work.  To  show  the 
difference  in  income  for  an  average  county  in  1880  and 
1900,  following  figures  are  exhibited: 

Assuming  10,000  bales  of  cotton  as  the  crop  of  an 
average  county,  and  taking  the  current  prices  of  to-day 
as  applicable  to  both,  in  order  to  show  the  comparison  at 
even  date,  10,000  bales  of  cotton  at  6  cents  would  yield 
$300,000.00.  This  would  represent  the  income  of  the 
people  of  the  country  for  their  cotton  crop,  when 
sold  as  raw  cotton.  Now  this,  if  manufactured 
into  cloth  is  worth  $1,000,000.  Instead  of  shipping  out 
cotton  to  England  and  getting  back  $300,000,  the  cotton 
goes  to  the  factory  in  the  county,  is  made  into  cloth  by 
home  people,  is  sen:  say,  to  China,  which  sends  back 
$1,000,000.00,  thus  making  a  profit  to  the  county  of 
$700,000.00.  This  assumes,  of  course,  that  the  laborers 
live  in  the  county,  that  the  fuel  is  obtained  in  the  county, 
(wood  or  coal),  or  that  the  power  comes  from  water.  The 
small  supplies  ordered  from  outside  amount  to  very  little, 
and  may  be  omitted.  The  difference  of  $700,000  is  not 
of  course,  all  profit  to  the  mills.  It  goes  to  pay  labor, 
thus  furnishing  profitable  employment  to  those  who  were 
formerly  compelled  to  idle  much  of  their  time;  it  pays 
for  wood  or  fuel,  that  formerly  rotted;  from  the  labor  it 
goes  to  the  farmer  for  food  stuffs  and  to  purchases 
from  merchants  and  others.  The  ultimate  division  of 
this  increased  income  to  the  county,  is  exhibited  in  Table 
IV. 


194  DURING    AND  AFTER  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 


TABLE  IV. 

SHOWING  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PROFITS  IN  COT- 
TON MANUFACTURING : 

To  farmers  for  beef,  pork,  meal,  flour,  chickens, 
eggs,  milk,  butter,  vegetables,  fruits  and  other 

perishable  farm  products   $250,000 

To  farmers  for  wood,  labor,  drayage  and  other 

service 50,000 

To  merchants  for  dry  goods 100,000 

To  merchants  for  groceries 100,000 

To  stockholders  for  dividends 100,000 

To  lawyers,  doctors,  preachers,  etc 50,000 

To  taxes,  good  roads,  schools  and  churches  .  .  .  50,000 

Total $700,000 

Besides  living  much  better,  all  these  beneficiaries  save 
something,  and  at  the  end  of  the  year,  the  country  is 
richer  instead  of  poorer. 

This  is  by  no  means  the  limit  of  profit  that  can  be 
brought  out  of  cotton  by  manufacture.  The  above  is 
simply  the  result  of  converting  cotton  into  plain  white  and 
simple  colored  goods,  all  comparatively  coarse.  By 
special  textile  education  and  training,  better  and  higher 
priced  goods  may  be  made.  As  the  quality  becomes  im- 
proved, the  money  brought  back  from  the  markets  of  the 
world  would  materially  increase. 

Take  the  crop  of  North  Carolina  for  one  year,  as  an  ex- 
ample, and  it  may  be  made  into  goods  the  market  value  of 
which  are  exhibited  in  Table  V*. 

*Frora  "Cotton  Values  in  Textile  Fabrics." 


DURING    AND  AFTER  THE  CIVIL  WAR.  1 95 


TABLE  V 

SHOWING   THE    VALUE   OF   A   NORTH    CARO- 
LINA COTTON  CROP  OF  500,000  BALES. 

As  cotton  at  6  cents 

per  pound.                                                 If  manufactured. 

$15,000,000  Duck  at  14c  per  11) $      35,000,000 

15,000,000  Drilling  at    16c    40,000,000 

15,000,000  Sheeting  at    18c 45,000,000 

15,000,000  Bleachirg  at  20c 50,000,000 

15,000,000  Tick  at  24c 60,000,000 

15,000,000  Cheviot  at  26c 65,000,000 

15,000,000  Denim  at  30c    75,000,000 

15,000,000  Plain  gingham  at  24c     85,000,000 

15,000,000  Window  shade  cloth  at  34c.  85,000,000 

15,000,000  Madras  at  40c 100,000,000 

15.0^1,000  Long  Cloth  at  70c 175,000,000 

15,000,000  Mercerized  cloth  at  $1 250,000,000 

15,000,000  Fancy  gingham  at  $1.60   ....  400,000,000 

15,000,000  Poplin  at  $1.80 450,000,000 

15,000,000  Emb.  ginghams  at  $2.20 550,000,000 

15,000,000  Fancy  ginghams  at  $2.80  ....  700,000,000 

15,000,000  Persian  lawn  at  $4.00 1,000,000,000 

15,000,000  Embroidery  at  $20 5,000,000,000 

Cotton  Seed  Oil  Mills. 

In  a  similar  way,  1  lie  cotton  >ned  oil  mills  take  cotton 
seed,  which  were  formerly  worthless,  and  turn  them  into 
products  having  good  values.  In  the  cotton  growing 
States,  the  values  gotten  out  of  cotton  seed  20  years  ago. 
were  all  together  not  over  $5,000,000.  At  the  present 
time  the  ultimate  values  reclaimed  from  cotton  seed  pro- 
ducts will  reach  nearly  or  quite  $100,000,000.  Numerous 
other  industries  have  developed,  and  these,  all  taken  to- 
gether, support  a  large    population,    who    receive    good 


196  DURING    AND  AFTER  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

wages,  and  in  turn,  buy  the  perishable  farm  products. 
Thus,  with  these  heips,  a  farmer  can  make  cotton  and 
sell  it  for  6  cents  a  pound  at  a  profit,  where  formerly, 
without  these  ■supplemental  markets,  he  would  have  lost 
money. 

In  addition  to  these  influences,  that  are  advantageous 
to  the  cotton  farmer,  the  cotton  States  have  been  wise 
and  liberal  in  all  legislation  about  agricultural  experiment 
stations,  boards  of  fertilizer  control,  agricultural  colleges, 
and  other  measures  that  contribute  to  the  farmers'  knowl- 
edge of  the  science  and  art  of  cotton  production.  While 
the  price  of  cotton  has  been  constantly  decreasing,  and 
the  quantities  increasing,  all  the  above  influences  have 
been  tending  to  keep  its  production  on  a  profitable  basis. 

Those  farmers  who  are  near  the  new  manufacturing 
centres,  can  now  produce  cotton  as  cheaply  and  profitab- 
ly as  the  ante-bellum  planter  could  with  slave  labor.  He 
can  sell  enough  farm  products,  other  than  cotton,  to  cover 
all  cost,  and  have  the  cotton  as  a  clear  profit.  This  natu- 
rally makes  land  more  valuable;  and  it  is  notable  that  land 
in  the  vicinity  of  all  new  factories  increase  in  price,  with 
great  rapidity,  to  twice  and  thrice  their  former  values. 

Because  of  slavery  before  the  Civil  War,  and  because 
of  the  disorders  thereafter,  the  cotton  growing  States  have 
not  attracted  much  immigration  from  the  class  that 
wanted  to  farm.  The  adverse  conditions  seem  now  to- 
tally gone.  In  the  conditions,  now  existing  in  the  cot- 
ton growing  States,  that  land  which  is  near  a  factory  pop- 
ulation, offers  greater  attractions  to  working  farmers 
than  the  farm  lands  of  any  other  part  of  the  United  States. 
The  old  condition  of  being  able  to  make  a  cotton  crop  as 
a  clear  profit  has  returned,  and  the  opportunity  is  well 
within  the  reach  of  a  man  of  very  limited  means. 

Advent  of  the  Small  Farm. 

The  negro  has  become  again  a  good  and  tractable 
workman,  provided   he  works 


DURING   AND  AFTER  THE  CIVIL  WAR.  1 97 

and  he  is  now  available  as  a  helper  to  a  good  farmer. 
Land  is  rapidly  increasing  in  value,  and  the  future  is  at- 
tractive, even  if  the  crop  of  cotton  is  large  and  the  prije 
cheap.  The  profits  in  cotton  planting  in  this  new  con- 
dition, are  not  to  be  made  by  planters  or  landlords  who 
own  large  tracts  of  land;  but  are  only  available  to  the 
thrifty  working  fanner.  By  handling  a  cotton  farm  on 
the  same  plan  as  the  wheat  and  corn  producers  of  the 
Northwest,  and  with  negro  labor,  still  cheap,  and  now  be- 
come very  reliable,  ('when  one  or  two  negroes  work  along 
with  the  white  man),  cotton  may  be  produced  with  greater 
economy,  and  probably  with  more  profit,  than  ever  be- 
fore in  its  history. 

These  favorable  conditions  for  the  small  farmer  ha\  e 
led  to  the  sub-division  and  sale  of  many  plantations,  and 
this  tendency  is  continuing,  thus  promoting  a  multiplicity 
of  small  farms. 


Part  II. 


COTTON    OIL. 


Copyrighted  1901  by  T>.  A.   TOMPKINS. 

THE  COTTON   PLANT  AS  IT  APPEARS  IN   SEPTEMBER 
BEFORE   FIRST   PICKING. 


CHAPTER  X. 

Cotton  Seefc, 

The  American  cotton  plant  grows  to  variable  heights. 
On  uplands,  and  where  full  grown,  it  is  sometimes  not 
more  than  15  to  20  inches  high.  Generally,  on  uplands, 
it  is  24  t»>  48  inches  high.  On  the  black  prairie  lands  of 
Texas,  it  grows  from  three  to  six  feet  high,  and  in  the 
rich  alluvial  Mississippi  bottoms,  its  full  heigiit  is  five  to 
eight,  and  sometimes  even  ten  feet. 

In  Southern  Texas  and  Florida  cotton  begins  to  open 
in  the  early  part  of  August.  In  much  the  greater  part  of 
the  cotton  belt,  picking  generally  begins  about  September 
1st. 

One  of  the  colored  plates  shows  a  cotton  plant  as  it  anpears 
in  September.  It  is  in  full  vigor  of  growth,  and  the  bolls  are 
just  beginning  to  open.  The  leaves  are  deep  green.  The 
blooms  are  a  light  yellow  when  they  first  come  out.  and 
become  light  pink  under  the  influence  of  the  sun.  The 
plant  continues  to  bloom  and  fruit  throughout  the  au- 
tumn, until  very  chilly  nights  or  frosts  check  further  de- 
velopment. 

Another  plate  shows  the  plant  about  November  1st.  when 
the  chilly  nights  give  to  the  leaves  the  color  of  autumn  fo- 
liage. 

At  a  later  period,  during  December,  the  leaves  have 
become  withered  and  have  fallen  to  the  ground,  leaving 
the  last  of  the  open  bolls  with  cotton  haneine  from  them 
ready  for  the  last  picking-,  as  shown  by  another  plate.  The 
immature  bolls,  caught  and  killed  by  the  frost  remain  on  the 
stalks  or  fall  to  the  ground. 

Half  a  bale  of  cotton  to  the  acre  is  ordinarily  good  pro- 
duction. The  average  of  the  whole  cotton-growincr  area 
is  about  one  bale  to  three  acres.  Reckoned  at  half  bale 
to  the  acre,  the  production  of  seed  to  the  acre  would  be 


202  COTTON   SEED. 

about  500  pounds,  or  about  16  bushels.  The  seed  from 
upland  cotton  weigh  30  to  33  1-3  pounds  per  bushel,  ac- 
cording to  the  manner  in  which  the  measure  is  packed 
or  heaped.  The  legislatures  of  different  States  fix  the 
weight  of  the  legal  bushel  at  different  figures, 
varying  from  30  to  33  1-3  pounds.  Buyers  of 
cotton  seed  frequently  ignore  the  legal  bushel,  and  buy  in 
a  wav  to  give  them  some  advantage,  as,  for  example,  in 
paying  for  them  by  the  (heavy  weight)  bushel,  and  sell- 
ing them  by  the  ton. 


,'Mi!li 


Al*i':j 


Fig.  61.     Cotton  Seed,  Showing  How  Lint  Grows. 

The  total  cotton  crop  of  the  United  States  is  about  ten 
million  bales.  For  every  pound  of  cotton  produced,  there 
is  an  average  of  two  pounds  of  seed.  Therefore  the  seed 
from  which  the  cotton  for  a  500  pound  bale  is  taken, 
weigh  about  1,000  pounds.  The  seed  from  the  entire  crop 
would  be  about  five  million  tons.  This  is  half  a  ton  of 
seed  per  bale  of  cotton. 

American  cotton  seed  are  of  two  kinds,  viz:  upland,  and 
Sea  Island,  or  black  seed.  Lint  cotton  has  the  appear- 
ance of  growing  out  of  the  seed  as  the  human  hair  grows 


Copyrighted  1901  by  D.  A.   TOMPKINS. 

THE  COTTON   PLANT  AS  IT  APPEARS  IN   OCTOBER 
AND   NOVEMBER. 


<$C/}££  Of/VU/VORETHS 
/A/CW. 


Fig.  62. 
Cross  Section  of  Cotton  Seed  Magnified  12A  Times. 


204  COTTON  SEED. 

out  of  the  head,  or  as  wool  out  of  a  sheep's  back.  See 
Fig.  61. 

The  lint  of  upland  cotton  holds  very  tenaciously  to  the 
seed.  In  ginning  it,  the  fibres  break  near  the  point  of  at- 
tachment to  seed.  This  ginning  requires  a  saw  gin.  The 
seed  from  the  gin  have  a  fuzzy  appearance,  and  are  slightly 
greenish  in  color. 

The  lint  from  Sea  Island  cotton  comes  entirely  loose 
from  the  seed  very  easily,  thus  leaving  seed  smooth  and 
black.  These  seed  are  called  "Sea  Island,"  or  "black 
seed,"  or  "baldheaded  seed." 

Figure  55  shows  the  empty  boll  with  the  seed  cotton  which 
comes  out  of  it.      (Cotton  is  in  the  picker's  hand.) 

Figure  6 1  shows  the  cotton  seed,  natural  size,  with  all  cot- 
ton removed  from  the  front  half,  and  the  cotton  fibres  more 
or  less  straightened  out  on  the  middle  plane.  This  figure 
shows  a  staple  about  one  inch  long.  This  is  a  fair  average 
of  good  upland  cotton.  Upland  cotton  grows  in  all  lengths 
from  -J  inch  to  i^  inches.  Mississsippi  "Bender"  cotton  has 
a  fibre  i^  to  if.  "Sea  islands"grow  i|-  to  2.\  inches,  if  to 
2  inches  being  the  usual  lengths  for  this  variety. 

Figure  62  is  the  cross  section  of  a  cotton  seed  magnified 
I2-|  diameters.  The  black  spots  are  oil  cells.  They  seem 
very  scattering,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  those  shown 
are  only  the  ones  in  the  section  through  which  the  seed  is  cut. 

The  centre  is  a  sort  of  stem,  and  in  germinating  the  con- 
voluted matter  unfolds  to  make  the  beginning  of  the  plant. 

Nearly  all  the  seed  worked  in  oil  mills  are  upland  seed. 
A  ton  of  these,  as  they  leave  the  ginnery,  and  go  to  the 
oil  mill,  are  physically  composed  about  as  follows  after  be- 
ing cleaned : 

Short  lint 75  lbs 

Hull. 925   lbs 

Oil  (52  gals) 390  lbs 

Meaf 610  lbs 

2,000  lbs 


Copyrighted  1901  by  D.  A.  TOMPKINS. 

THE  COTTON   PLANT  AS  IT  APPEARS  IN   DECEMBER. 
NEARLY  READY   FOR   FINAL  PICKING. 


COTTON  SEED.  205 

A  good  oil  mill  gets  out  of  a  ton  of  seed,  products  about 
as  follows : 

Short  lint 25   lbs 

Hull 1,000  lbs 

Oil  (40  gals) 300  lbs 

Meal 675  lbs 

2,000  lbs 

The  foregoing  estimates  do  not  take  into  ac- 
count sand  and  other  foreign  matter  in  seed. 
This  is  comparatively  small.  It  varies,  with  the  care  in 
picking  and  ginning-,  from  1  to  5  per  cent. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  separations  are  considerably 
short  of  perfection.  Only  about  25  pounds  out  of  /j 
pounds  of  the  lint  left  on  the  seed  can  be  profitably  taken 
off.  After  this  amount,  the  remainder  is  short  and  worth - 
.less,  and  is  left  to  go  with  the  hull.  In  the  processes  ot 
crushing  and  manipulation,  some  of  the  hull  and  lint  gets 
into  meal,  thus  increasing  the  weight  of  the  meal.  This 
weight  is  still  furthe*  increased  by  the  oil  which  is  left  in 
it. 

All  market  towns  in  the  cotton  growing  States  have 
."seed  agents,"  in  the  ginning  season.  The  oil  mill  com- 
panies construct  seed  houses  and  put  up  wagon  scales  at 
the  railway  stations.  Some  companies  have  50  to  75  of 
them.  These  are  small  and  cheaply  constructed  ware- 
houses, capable  of  holding  one  to  three  or  four  carloads 
of  seed.  The  mills  send  out  representatives  in  August 
to  arrange  for  agents  to  take  charge  of  their  seed  houses 
and  scales,  and  buy  seed  for  them.  These  agents  gener- 
ally get  $1  per  ton  for  compensation.  At  good  seed 
points,  there  are  sometimes  several  seed  houses,  and  of 
course  several  agents.  Some  merchants  own  seed  houses, 
and  buy  seed  on  their  own  account,  and  sell  them  to  the 
oil  mills  afterwards.    Ginners  also  sometimes  act  as  seed 


206  COTTON  SEED. 

agent  for  mills,  and  sometimes  buy  and  sell  seed  on 
their  own  account. 

In  the  Piedmont  region  of  the  Southeastern  States,  and 
adjacent  uplands,  there  will  be  marketed  in  a  good  town, 
from  farm  wagons,  two  to  four  thousand  tons  of  seed  in 
a  season.  In  Texas,  a  good  market  town  will  sometimes 
(though  rarely,)  handle  as  much  as  ten  thousand  tons. 

The  competition  of  the  different  local  seed  buyers  is 
sometimes  very  keen,  to  the  extent  of  much  excitemen:. 
It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  two  or  more  young  white  men 
— runners  for  seed  agents  or  buyers — mount  the  wagon  of 
a  negro  or  white  farmer,  as  he  comes  from  the  country 
into  the  market  town.  These  press  upon  the  farmer  of- 
fers for  the  seed.  Sometimes  the  drummers,  or  runners, 
even  get  into  persona1  encounters.  The  oil  mill  managers 
are  themselves  good  fighters  in  the  seed  markets,  and  they 
not  infrequently  sacrifice  business  judgment  to  the  pleas- 
ures of  purchasing  a  larger  quantity  of  seed  than  some 
rival  manager.  Considerable  quantities  of  seed  are  taken 
on  wagons  by  farmers  or  ginners  direct  to  the  oil  mills, 
when  these  are  near  by. 

The  seed  bought  in  market  towns,  and  there  stored  in 
seed  houses,  are  shipped  in  bulk  and  in  carload  lots  to 
the  oil  mills.  They  are  brought  to  the  warehouse  by  the 
farmers.  These  take  cotton  to  the  ginnery,  pay  for  the 
ginning  and  baling,  and  then  take  the  bale  of  cotton  and 
the  seed  to  market. 

In  Texas,  there  is  z  growing  tendency  for  the  large  gin- 
neries to  buy  the  seed  cotton,  and  when  this  is  done,  the 
ginner  markets  both  seed  and  lint. 

Great  care  should  always  be  taken  to  protect  seed  from 
exposure  to  rain,  and  even  from  moisture.  Slight  moisture 
will  cause  heating  and  decay.  A  very  few  seed  slightly 
wet  or  damp,  if  put  into  a  seed  house,  will  very  soon  begin 
to  heat.  The  heating  will  extend  to  other  seed,  and  de- 
cay sets  in  rapidly  with  great  heat.  This  heat  sometimes 
becomes  so  great  as  to  make  fire  by  spontaneous  com- 


COTTON  SEED.  207 

bustion.  Such  a  fire  in  the  middle  of  a  seed  pile,  does  not 
break  out,  as  an  ordinary  fire  does,  but  simply  smoulders. 
It  is  nevertheless  disastrous  in  its  effects  on  the  seed.  The 
oil  from  seed  that  have  been  heated,  is  not  sweet  or  edible, 
but  must  be  sold  for  soap  making  or  other  such  uses. 
Seed,  when  found  beginning  to  heat,  are  always  given  im- 
mediate attention  by  the  good  mill  manager.  They  are  at 
once  fed  to  the  mill.  If  there  are  more  than  the  mill  can 
take  care  of,  they  may  be  shoveled  from  one  place  to  an- 
other to  cool.  This  is,  of  course,  expensive.  The  rule 
about  an  oil  mill  is  that  wet  seed  will  not  be  purchased. 
When,  however,  a  farmer  is  caught  in  a  slight  rain,  with  a 
load,  the  mill  man  will  usually  strain  the  point,  buy  the 
seed,  and  send  them  at  once  into  the  mill  to  be  worked. 

It  is  a  question  whether  water  or  fire  does  the  greatest 
damage  to  seed.  For  this  reason,  it  has  never  been  de- 
termined whether  tor  fire  protection  a  seed  house  ought 
to  be  equipped  with  automatic  sprinklers  or  not. 

Some  large  mills  work  30,000  to  50,000  tons  of  seed  per 
year,  and  have  storage  for  10,000  to  15,000  tons.  With 
such  quantities  in  the  warehouses  at  one  time,  the  im- 
portance of  having  all  stored  seed  perfectly  sound  and  dry 
will  be  apparent. 

The  seed  from  the  early  part  of  the  season  do  not  keep 
as  well  as  those  of  the  second  and  third  pickings.  The 
early  seed  have  most  sap.  On  this  account  early  seed  are 
much  more  liable  to  heat.  For  this  reason,  such  of  these 
earlv  seed  as  are  stored,  are  worked  out  of  the  warehouse 
early,  and  the  space  then  filled  with  seed  of  later  growth. 

The  quantity  of  oil  in  cotton  seed  varies  greatly.  The 
quantities  are  different  on  different  soils,  and  also  differ- 
ent in  different  seasons.  The  quality  of  the  oil  also  varies. 
Sometimes  seed  from  a  certain  section  will  yield,  in  an 
average  oil  mill,  42  gcllons  per  ton,  the  oil  having  a  sweet, 
palatable  flavor.  In  another  season,  the  same  soil  may 
produce  a  seed  that  will  yield  only  35  gallons  per  ton,  and 
the  quality  of  the  oil  may  not  be  as  good. 


208  COTTON  SEED. 

It  is  no  rule  that  large  quantity  and  good  flavor  go  to- 
gether, nor  is  it  a  rule,  that  small  yield  makes  oil  of  inferior 
quality.  The  quantity  and  flavor  seem  to  depend  on  in- 
dependent influences.  Experts  differ  in  opinion  on  these 
points.  Many  good  oil  mill  men  claim  that  large  yield 
and  good  oil  are  usually  found  together.  Other  good  mill 
men  claim  that  a  wet  season  makes  seed  that  give  larger 
yields,  but  these  seed,  because  of  sap,  are  more  liable  to 
heat  and  therefore  make  inferior  quality  of  oil. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

Cotton  Scefc  ©iL    Ibistor^  anfc  Commercial 
features. 

From  time  immemorial,  the  praise  of  the  olive  tree  has 
been  sung,  both  in  sacred  and  profane  literature.  For 
centuries  before  and  after  the  Christian  era,  it  was  held, 
and  is  still  held,  in  the  highest  esteem.  This  high  estima- 
tion in  which  the  olive  tree  is  held,  comes  undoubtedly 
from  the  fact  that  in  its  fruit  and  oil,  mankind  has  hereto- 
fore obtained  more  that  is  useful  than  from  any  other 
plant  or  tree. 

It  was  an  olive  branch  that  the  dove  brought  back  to 
Noah  in  the  ark,  to  give  courage  and  hope  to  survivors 
of  the  flood.  The  olive  branch  is  well  nigh  an  universal 
emblem  of  peace  among  all  peoples. 

In  ancient  times,  and  in  many  countries  still,  olive  oil  is 
the  principal,  and  in  many  cases  the  only  cooking  grease. 
Our  Anglo-Saxon  habit  of  using  animal  fats  in  its  stead,  is 
the  exception,  and  not  the  rule.  In  The  Arabian  Nights, 
the  story  goes,  that  forty  thieves  were  concealed  in  jars 
that  were  supposed  to  contain  oil. 

Throughout  the  same  ages,  the  cotton  plant  has  always 
existed;  but,  remarkable  as  it  may  seem,  its  value  was 
never  fully  understood,  until  within  the  past  25  years. 

The  three  prime  necessities  of  the  human  race  are:  food, 
clothing  and  shelter.  Towards  these,  the  olive  tree  fur- 
nishes its  fruit  and  oil  for  food,  and  in  a  very  limited  ex- 
tent its  wood  for  construction.  The  cotton  plant  now 
supplies  lint,  from  whicn  clothing  for  the  body,  the  bed 
and  household  (carpets)  is  made.  It  supplies  oil  for  cook- 
ing purposes,  and  for  many  industrial  uses,  such  as  for 
lamps  in  mines,  and  to  a  limited  extent  for  lubrication,  fur 
making  soap,  glycerine,  candles,  butter,  lard,  and  for  in- 
numerable other  uses. 


2IO  HISTORY    AND    COMMERCIAL    FEATURES. 

The  cotton  seed  meal  is  used  for  supplying  ammonia 
and  other  constituents  in  commercial  fertilizers,  for  cattle 
food  in  dairies,  for  fattening  beef,  sheep,  and  for  various 
other  purposes.  Lately,  however,  ic  is  being  mostly 
used  as  a  food  for  cattle  and  sheep.  This  is  especially  the 
case  at  dairy  farms,  and  where  cattle  are  being  fatted  for  | 
beef,  and  at  saw  mills,  where  oxen  are  used  to  haul  logs.       ; 

In  truth,  we  are  suddenly  brought  to  a  realization  of  the 
fact  that  the  cotton  plant  gives  us  more  than  the  olive  tree 
ever  gave  to  mankind.  And,  by  perfecting  machinery 
and  methods  for  the  production  of  useful  products  from 
cotton  seed,  values  which  have  for  centuries  been  un- 
known, have  suddenly  been  brought  to  light.  The  men 
who  have  been  most  instrumental  in  the  production  of 
valuable  products  from  cotton  seed,  have  been  doing  a 
work  not  only  for  themselves,  but  for  the  country  at  large, 
and  for  all  humanity 

The  First  Cotton  Seed  Oil  Mills. 

The  first  mill  was  built  at  Natchez,  Miss.,  in  1834.  A 
Mr.  Martin  operated  a  cotton  seed  oil  mill  in  New 
Orleans  as  far  back  as  1847.  But  few  other  mills  were 
built  prior  to  the  Civil  War.  Immediately  after  the  Civil 
war  of  1860-65,  several  mills  were  built,  some  of  which 
succeeded,,  and  some  failed. 

In  1869  General  E.  P.  Alexander  built  a  cotton  seed  oil 
mill  at  Columbia,  S.  C.  Following  this,  other  mills  were 
built  in  different  parts  of  the  cotton  growing  area.  By 
1880,  the  business  of  crushing  cotton  seed  had  developed 
into  a  distinct  and  entirely  legitimate  business,  but  the 
process  employed,  and  everything  pertaining  to  the  indus- 
try was  held  in  great  secrecy. 

The  oil  was  found  to  be  about  the  same  as  olive  oil,  and 
the  cake  and  meal  wao  largely  exported  and  used  in  Eng- 
land, and  on  the  Continent,  for  stock  food.  What  was  pur- 
chased in  America  was  principally  used  as  a  fertilizer. 
The  oil  was  used  principally  as  a  substitute  for,  or  an  adul- 


4 


HISTORY    AND    COMMERCIAL    FEATURES.  213 

terant  of,  olive  oil,  and  readily  sold  in  the  crude  state,  at 
from  50  to  60  cents  per  gallon. 

Those  mills  that  were  managed  with  even  a  rough  ap- 
proximation to  ordinary  care  and  business  judgment  made 
very  large  profits.  As  the  business  still  developed  and  the 
price  of  oil  became  less,  the  pork  packers  discovered,  that 
it  could  be  advantageously  used  with  certain  beef  pro- 
ducts to  make  an  excellent  cooking  fat,  to  take  the  place 
of  hog  lard.  Since  its  adaptation  to  this  use,  large  and  in- 
creasing quantities  have  been  consumed  by  concerns  that 
slaughter  cattle  and  dress  beef  for  market.  Since  about 
1880,  the  consumption  of  cotton  seed  oil  has  been  further 
increased  by  its  use  for  packing  sardines  on  the  coast  of 
Maine,  for  making  butter  in  America,  Holland  and  else- 
where, and  for  numerous  other  purposes. 

The  Machinery  Used. 

The  principal  machinery  used  in  early  cotton  seed  oil 
mills  was  brought  from  England.  It  no  doubt  comprised 
such  heaters  and  presses  as  were  used  to  crush  oil  from  lin- 
seed, Egyptian  cotton  seed,  and  other  oil  seeds  that  were 
produced  in  or  shipped  to  England.  Egyptian  cotton 
seed  are  black  and  lintless,  very  similar  to  seed  from  Sea 
Island  cotton  in  this  country.  The  process  of  working 
them  was  very  simple  They  were  first  crushed  under  old 
fashioned  mulling  stones,  then  put  in  steam  jacketed  ket- 
tles with  mechanical  stirrers,  and  cooked.  The  product 
was  dumped  from  the  kettle  or  heater  into  a  wooden  bin, 
and  from  the  bin  it  was  put  into  a  hydraulic  press  contain- 
ing about  five  boxes,  and  put  under  about  two  to  three 
thousand  pounds  pressure  to  the  square  inch,  on  rams  ten 
to  twelve  inches  in  diameter. 

Upland  American  seed  are  not  entirely  free  from  lint. 
On  account  of  the  quantity  of  oil  this  lint  is  capable  of  ab- 
sorbing, and  also  on  account  of  the  injury  which  the  lint 
is  to  the  cake  as  a  food  stuff,  it  was  important  to  separate 
the  hull  from  the  meats.     This  was  accomplished  by  the 


214  HISTORY    AND    COMMERCIAL    FEATURES. 

use  of  a  huller,  a  machine  to  cut  the  seed  to  pieces,  and 
screening  out  the  meats  from  the  hulls,  in  bolting  chests, 
having  the  reel  clothed  with  wire  cloth. 

The  earlier  mills  were  either  built  by  foreign  mechanics, 
or  native  Southern  mechanics  of  ante-bellum  type,  both 
of  whom  were  dogmatic,  opinionated  and  incompetent. 
It  commonly  required  about  two  years  for  these  to  build 
a  mill,  and  get  it  into  successful  operation. 

The  costs,  profits,  processes  and  all  other  information 
about  an  oil  mill  wert  kept  carefully  concealed  by  owners 
and  millwrights  or  experts. 

From  1882  to  1884,  the  subject  was  first  looked  into 
from  an  engineering  point  of  viewr.  In  1884,  there  was 
erected  the  first  cotton  seed  oil  mill  ever  built  from  de- 
signs made  by  the  modern  type  of  educated  and  practical 
American  engineer. 

Most  of  the  seed  worked  in  the  United  States  are  up- 
land seed.  The  average  physical  composition  of  a  ton  of 
these  upland  seed  as  received  at  the  oil  mill  is  about  as  fol- 
lows : 

Short  lint 70  lbs 

Hull 910  lbs 

Oil  (51  gals) 382  lbs 

Meal 600  lbs 

Sand  and  other  foreign  matter 38  lbs 


These  proportions  vary  with  seasens,  soils,  character 
of  ginning  and  care  or  conscience  of  the  farmer,  ginner  or 
seed  agent.  By  bad  ginning  there  may  be  125  pounds  of  lint 
left  on  the  seed,  and  by  very  good  ginning,  the  seed  may 
be  cleared  of  lint  to  within  50  pounds. 

The  best  possible  oil  mill  is  one  in  which  the  separation 
of  the  above  constituents  is  most  nearly  complete  and  put 
in  marketable  shape  at  the  least  expense  per  ton. 


2l6  HISTORY    AND    COMMERCIAL    FEATURES. 

Process. 

The  process  of  manufacture  in  American  oil  mills  un- 
derwent very  little  change  until  about  1880.  From  that 
time  forward,  great  improvement  has  been  made  in  ma- 
chinery, such  as  improved  hullers,  improved  linters,  steel 
plate  boxes  in  presses  (requiring  no  hair  mats),  chilled  rolls 
in  place  of  muller  stones,  etc,  etc. 

The  process  now  conducted  in  first-class  mills  is  about 
as  follows : 

1.  The  seed  are  cleaned  of  sand. 

2.  Then  cleaned  of  the  other  foreign  substances,  such 
as  bolls,  pieces  of  wooci,  etc. 

3.  They  are  then  carried  to  the  linters,  and  re-ginned 
for  a  part  of  the  short  lint. 

4.  They  are  then  carried  to  the  huller,  which  cuts  them 
to  pieces. 

5.  Then  in  a  reel  the  meats  are  separated  from  the 
hulls. 

6.  The  hulls  are  then  taken  out,  heretofore  to  the  fire 
room  for  fuel,  but  latterly  to  be  sold  as  cattle  feed. 

7.  The  meats  are  taken  to  the  rolls  which  crush  them, 
breaking  the  oil  cells. 

8.  From  the  rolls,  the  meats  go  into  heaters,  in  which 
they  are  cooked. 

9.  From  the  heaters,  meats  are  taken  into  the  former, 
where  cakes  are  formed  and  enclosed  in  cloth. 

10.  The  cakes  are  placed  in  the  press  and  the  oil  ex- 
tracted by  pressure. 

n.  The  cake  remaining  in  the  press  is  taken  out,  al- 
lowel  to  cool,  and  iray  then  be  cracked  and  ground  into 
meal. 

The  following  tables  will  exhibit  the  variety  of  results 
from  operating  various  kinds  of  oil  mills,  under  different 
conditions. 


HISTORY    AND    COMMERCIAL    FEATURES.  217 

TABLE    VI. 

SHOWING  PRODUCTS  AND  VALUES  OBTAINED 
FROM  ONE  TON  OF  SEED  IN  THE  EARLY 
OIL  MILLS: 

1,000  lbs  hulls,  used  as  fuel $     .30 

775  lbs  meal  @  90c 6.98 

225  lbs  oil=30  gallons  @  60c 18,00 

2,000  lbs  seed,  giving  product  worth $25.28 

Cost  of  seed $10.00 

Cost  of  working 5.00       $15.00 

Profit $10.28 

A  mill  of  this  design  capable  of  working  5,000  tons  of 
seed  per  year,  should  therefore  have  made,  and  often  did 
make,  with  good  management,  $50,000  per  year. 

At  the  present  day,  meal  remains  at  about  the  same 
price  shown  in  the  above  table.  Oil,  however,  has  declin- 
ed fully  half.  By  improved  mills  and  machinery,  the  cost 
per  ton  of  working  seed  has  been  much  reduced,  and  the 
quantity  of  oil  per  ton  has  been  increased. 

Many  mills  exist  that  can  never  be  made  first-class,  ex- 
cept by  entire  reconstruction.  Of  the  mills  still  being 
built,  there  is  much  variation  in  the  quality  of  the  design 
and  workmanship  on  the  machinery. 


2l8  HISTORY    AND    COMMERCIAL    FEATURES. 


TABLE  VII. 

SHOWING  PRESENT  PRODUCT  AND  VALUES 
OBTAINED  FROM  ONE  TON  OF  SEED  IN  AN 
OLD  OR  BADLY  CONSTRUCTED  OIL  MILL,  IN 
A  GOOD  YEAR. 

Oil,  39  gals  at  30  cents  per  gal $1 1.70 

Meal,  675  pounds  at  $1.00  per  cwt 6.75 

Hull,  950  pounds  at  $3.00 .per  ton 1.42 

Lint.  25  pounds  at  3^ -75 

$20.62 

Cost  of  seed  delivered  at  mill $14.00 

Cost  of  working,  bags,  barrels,  etc    3.50 

Cost  of  fuel 1 .00     18.50 


Profit ?2.I2 

A  mill  under  these  circumstances,  working  5,000  tons 
of  seed  per  year,  could  therefore  make  a  profit  of  more 
than  $10,000. 


HISTORY    AND    COMMERCIAL    FEATURES.  2K) 


TABLE  VIII. 

SHOWING  PRESENT  PRODUCTS  AND  VALUES 
OBTAINED  FROM  ONE  TON  OF  SEED  IN  AN 
OLD  OR  BADLY  CONSTRUCTED  MILL,  IN  A 
BAD  YEAR. 

Oil,  35  gals  at  20c $7.00 

Meal,  675  pounds  at  90c  per  cwt 6.08 

Hull,  950  pounds  at  $3.00  per  ton 1.42 

Lint,  25  pounds  at  3c 75 

$15-25 

Cost  of  seed  delivered  at  mill   $12.00 

Cost  of  working,  bags,  barrels,  etc 3.50 

•Cost  of  fuel,  per  ton 1.00  16.50 

Loss $1.25 

A  mill  under  these  circumstances,  working  5,000  tons  of 
:seed  per  year  would  lose  over  $5,000. 


220  HISTORY   AND   COMMERCIAL    FEATURES. 

TABLE  IX. 

SHOWING  PRESENT  PRODUCTS  AND  VALUES 
OBTAINED  FROM  ONE  TON  OF  SEED  IN 
WELL  DESIGNED  MILL  WITH  THE  BEST  MA- 
CHINERY, IN  A  GOOD  YEAR. 

Oil,  40  gals  at  30c     $12.00 

Meal,  675  pounds  at  $1.00  cwt 6.75 

Hull,  950  pounds  at  $4.00  per  ton 1.90 

Lint,  30  pounds  at  3c: .90 


21. 


d5 


Cost  of  seed $15.00 

Cost  of  working,  bags,  etc 3.00 

Cost  of  fuel 50  $18.50' 

Profit $3.05 

A  mill  under  these  circumstances,  working  5,000  tons- 
of  seed  per  year  would  make  a  profit  of  about  $15,000. 


HISTORY    AND   COMMERCIAL    FEATURES.  221 

TABLE  X. 

SHOWING  PRESENT  PRODUCTS  AND  VALUES 
OBTAINED  FROM  ONE  TON  OF  SEED  IN  A 
WELL  DESIGNED  MILL  WITH  THE  BEST  MA- 
CHINERY, IN  A  BAD  YEAR. 

Oil,  40  gals  at  20c $8.00 

Meal,  675  pounds,  at  90c 6\o8 

Hull,  950  pounds  at  $4.00 i-9° 

Lint,  30  pounds  at  3c 9° 

$16.88 

Cost  of  seed $12.00 

Cost  of  working,  bags,  etc 3.00 

Cost  of  fuel 5°  :5-50 

Profit $1-38 

A  mill  under  these  circumstances,  working  5,000  tons 
of  seed  per  year,  would  make  a  profit  of  nearly  $7,000 
This  would  be  a  dividend  of  14  per  cent,  on  a  capital  of 
$50,000  in  the  worst  year.  This  shows  the  value  of  first- 
class  designs  in  an  oil  mill. 

These  figures  are  all  average  estimates.  There  is,  of 
course,  great  variation  in  prices  at  different  times,  and  in 
prices  at  different  parts  of  the  seed  territory.  They  appiy 
also  to  the  oil  mill  business,  without  supplemental  or  aux- 
iliary adjuncts,  that  are  now  coming  into  vogue. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  best  modern  concerns  in  the 
East  comprise  in  one  plant,  a  ginnery,  oil  mill,  fertilizer 
works  and  cotton  mill,  each  department  helping  the  other. 

In  the  operation  of  an  oil  mill,  the  personality  of  the  man- 
ager and  his  capacity  to  make  quick  and  accurate  decisions 
on  commercial  points,  has  a  greater  influence  on  the  profits 
than  is  the  case  in  most  other  businesses. 


222  HISTORY    AND    COMMERCIAL    FEATURES. 

Hulls  for  Fuel. 

Throughout  the  ei  tire  South,  the  use  of  hulls  for  fuel 
has  been  totally  abandoned,  and  they  are  being  used  as 
stock  food,  many  mills  having  added  the  business  of  fat- 
tening cattle  for  beef.  The  use  of  hulls  and  meal  together 
has  been  thoroughly  demonstrated  to  be  excellent  for  fat- 
tening cattle  for  beef,  and  also  for  feeding  dairy  cattle. 
These  combinations  have  been,  in  fact,  so  perfected  in  de- 
sign that  several  plants  have  been  built  to  put  the  seed 
cotton  as  a  raw  material  through  a  complete  cycle  of  oper- 
ations, as  follows  : 

i.   Separating  the  lint  from  the  seed. 

2.  Separating  the  short  lint. 

3.  Separating  the  hull  and  meat. 

4.  Separating  the  oil  and  meal. 

5.  Mixing  meal  and  other  ingredients  for  fertilizer. 

6.  Feeding  hulls  and  meal  to  cattle,  using  the  manure 
as  a  fertilizer. 

7.  Spinning  and  weaving  the  lint,  making  yarn  and 
cloth. 

Thus,  taking  seed  cotton  as  a  raw  material,  the  pro- 
ducts are  taken  out  that  are  valuable  for  clothing  and  ani- 
mal food,  and  what  is  useless  for  these  purposes  is  returned 
to  the  soil,  to  make  the  new  crop. 

Table  XI.  exhibits  the  value  that  might  be  obtained 
from  the  seed  from  ten  million  bales  of  cotton,  if  manu- 
factured under  the  ordinary  improved  processes  now  in 
common  use,  and  sold  at  current  prices. 


X 

X 


224  HISTORY    AND    COMMERCIAL    FEATURES. 

TABLE  XI. 

SHOWING  VALUE  OF  ORDINARY  MANUFAC- 
TURED PRODUCTS  OF  COTTON  SEED  FROM 
TEN  MILLION  BALES  OF  COTTON. 

200  million  gals  oil    (40  gals  per    ton  from 

five  million  tons)  at  30c $60,000,000 

Two  and  a  half  million  tons  hulls  at  $4.00.  .  10,000,000 
One  and  two-thirds    million    tons  of  meal  at 

$21.00 35,000,000 

100  million  pounds  lint  at  3c 3,000,000 

Total    $108,000,000 

The  total  seed  crop  of  1900  as  disposed  of  by  ante-bel- 
lum planters  would  not  have  been  worth  $5,000,000,  as 
against  more  than  $100,000,000,  if  utilized  according  to 
the  present  known  methods  of  obtaining  values  out  of 
them. 

But  the  values  indicated  in  the  above  table  represent 
even  much  less  than  the  possible  results. 

Two  and  a  half  million  tons  of  hulls  will  fatten  for  mar- 
ket two  and  a  half  million  heavy  beef  cattle,  or  would 
maintain  a  proportionate  number  of  dairy  cattle. 

From  these  cattle  come  beef,  tallow,  glue,  all  dairy 
products,  and  still  further  developed  industries.  The  oil 
besides  being  used  as  a  cooking  oil,  gives  also  glycerine, 
candles,  soap,  lard,  butter  and  indefinite  other  products 
and  industries.  Notable  as  an  example  of  one  of  the  uses 
to  which  it  goes :  The  cylinders  of  the  phonograph  are 
made  from  the  "soap  stock"  residue  in  refining  cotton  oil 


HISTORY   AND   COMMERCIAL    FEATURES.  225 

Delinting  Machinery. 

There  is  a  legend  in  the  oil  business  that  there  is  a  for- 
tune in  store  for  the  man  who  invents  a  means  of  cleaning 
the  lint  from  upland  cotton  seed  so  that  they  have  the  ap- 
pearance of  Sea  Island  or  Egyptian  seed.  The  country  is 
full  of  inventors  trying  to  make  seed  cleaning  machines. 
Most  of  the  workers  at  the  problem  have  never  stopped 
to  ask  the  question  where  the  fortune  would  come  from, 
or  why  it  should  even  be  expected  that  there  would  be 
profit  in  a  perfected  delinting  machine.  Many  machines 
have  been  invented  and  made — quite  a  number  of  good 
ones,  but  nobody  has  yet  made  the  fortune. 

Whenever  any  evidence  is  exhibited  at  all  in  support  of 
the  assertion  or  idea  that  a  delinting  machine  would  be 
valuable,  the  argument  is  about  as  follows :  The  price  of 
seed  in  America  is  $10.00  per  ton;  in  England  it  is  quoted 
about  $24.00  per  ton  Therefore,  if  a  machine  could  be  in- 
vented to  make  American  seed  look  like  the  Egyptian, 
there  would  be  a  fortune  it. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  when  seed  are  quoted  at  $10.00  in 
this  country  and  $24.00  in  England,  the  meaning  of  a  ton 
in  this  country  is  2,000  pounds,  and  in  England  2.240 
pounds.  If  this  be  considered,  and  there  be  added  to  the 
cost  of  seed  in  this  country  the  cost  of  cleaning,  freight  to 
port,  ocean  freight,  handling  and  commission  on  the  other 
side,  and  freight  to  mill  on  the  other  side,  it  will  be  found 
cheaper  to  work  seed  in  America  by  the  usual  American 
process.  The  seed  from  the  American  sea  island  cotton 
are  already  clean,  and  are  already  near  ports  in  most  cases, 
and  yet  no  important  business  has  ever  been  developed  in 
shipping  them  abroad.  The  reason  is,  that  if  they  can  be 
purchased  at  a  reasonable  price,  it  pays  better  to  work  them 
in  this  country  than  to  attempt  to  ship  them. 

Linting. 

Much  has  been  said  about  the  value  of  the  lint  that  is 
not  true.     After  seed  are  well  linted  by  an  ordinary  linter, 


226  HISTORY    AND    COMMERCIAL    FEATURES. 

what  is  left  is  of  not  much  value  as  fibre  or  paper  stock 
A  good  linter  gets  from  20  to  30  pounds  of  lint  from  a 
ton  of  seed,  when  about  five  tons  per  day  is  put  through 
one  machine.  It  is  a  considerable  question  whether  it  is 
worth  the  cost  to  take  more  than  30  pounds  of  lint  from 
average  seed. 

Assuming  the  ability  of  the  linters  to  get  say  30  pounds 
of  lint  per  ton,  the  linters  may  be  so  arranged  as  to  run 
the  entire  seed  first  through  one  half  the  linters,  getting 
fifteen  pounds  per  ton,  and  then  run  them  through  the 
other  half,  getting  fifteen  pounds  more.  The  first  lint 
would  sell  for  say  4  cents  per  pound,  making  60  cents  per 
ton.  The  second  lint  would  bring  say  2  cents  per  pound, 
making  30  cents  per  ton,  making  a  total  of  90  cents  per 
ton. 

On  the  other  hand,  running  the  seed  through  all  the 
linters  at.  one  time  would  give,  say  30  pounds  of  uniform 
quality,  which  would  sell  at  about  3  cents  per  pound, 
making  90  cents  per  ton  also.  The  question  of  profit 
would  depend  more  on  the  market  to  be  reached  than 
upon  anything  in  the  mill. 

Storing  Cotton  Seed. 

Cotton  seed  are  very  perishable,  and  the  danger  of  heat- 
ing might  be  estimated  at  10  per  cent,  of  their  value.  By 
care,  this  may  be  reduced  to  5  per  cent,  or  less. 

A  mill  having  a  capacity  of  30  tons  of  seed  per  24  hours, 
and  a  storage  capacity  of  1,000  tons  of  seed,  from  the  15th 
of  September  to  the  15th  of  February,  would  work  about 
3,000  tons;    allowing  for  breakdowns  and  holidays. 

To  work  5,000  tons  instead  of  3,000  may  be  accom- 
plished by  increasing  storage  capacity  to  the  extent  of 
2,000  tons,  making  3.000  instead  of  1,000,  and  using  the 
same  machinery;  or  it  may  be  done  by  leaving  seed  storage 
unchanged,  and  adding  additional  machinery  to  work  the 
2,000  tons  additional  seed  in  the  same  time. 


HISTORY   AND   COMMERCIAL   FEATURES.  227 

By  adding  storage,  there  would  be  the  following  items 
of  additional  expense: 

i.  Liability  of  seed  to  rot  or  damage. 

2.  Interest  on  money  invested  in  2,000  tons  stored  seed. 

3.  Less  oil  per  ton  on  stored  seed  than  on  seed  worked 
fresh. 

4.  Less  price  on  oil  out  of  stored  seed,  if  in  any  way 

heated. 

5.  Additional  labor  for  working  same  tonnage  for  a 
longer  time. 

6.  Interest  on  increased  warehouse  cost. 

By  adding  new  machinery  there  would  be  the  following 
additional  expenses  and  advantages  : 

1.  Interest  on  value  of  additional  machinery. 

2.  Repairs  on  additional  machinery. 

3.  Less  cost  per  ton,  because  the  same  force  can  usually 
operate  the  additional  machinery  and  make  the  increased 
output  in  the  same  time. 

4.  The  meal  can  be  put  on  the  market  for  the  current 
year,  instead  of  part  of  it  having  to  be  carried  over  to  an- 
other season. 

By  having  ample  mill  capacity,  as  against  large  storage 
capacity,  and  working  seed  practically  as  fast  as  received, 
banking  facilities  become  a  much  simpler  matter,  and  in 
all  respects  the  manufacture  is  facilitated  and  cheapened. 
But  there  is  a  limit  to  the  profitable  capacity  of  a  single  mill. 
It  is  believed  that  the  most  profitable  size  mill  ranges  from 
25  to  100  tons  capacity,  according  to  locality  and  amount 
of  seed  available.  Mills  larger  than  this  become  difficult 
to  manage.  One  of  the  difficulties  consists  in  the  handling 
of  the  large  amounts  of  seed  which  come  by  rail  during  the 
short  season  in  which  seed  are  marketed.  If  larger  capacity 
than  100  tons  per  day  is  desired,  it  is  better  to  build  two  or 
more  separate  mills. 

It  is  a  good  rule  in  any  manufactory  to  keep  on  hand 
the  least  raw  material  necessary  for  regular  running,  and 
to  sell  products  about  as  they  are  ready  for  the  marker. 


228  HISTORY   AND   COMMERICAL   FEATURES. 

To  accumulate  raw  material  is  to  speculate  in  it,  and  to 
hold  the  products  is  equally  speculative;  and  a  factory  is 
not  necessary  if  speculation  is  the  object.  It  is  best  to  ac- 
cept whatever  profit  there  is  in  manufacture  at  current 
market  prices  of  raw  material  and  products,  and  when 
current  market  prices  yield  no  profit,  shut  down  and  wait 
for  one  or  the  other  of  the  markets  to  change.  By  this 
plan  it  is  always  easy  to  determine  what  a  factory  can 
afford  to  pay  for  raw  material. 

Whenever  a  mill  is  not  in  condition  to  operate,  by  be- 
ing unfinished  or  otherwise,  it  is  especially  dangerous  to 
accumulate  seed.  If  it  seems  desirable  to  purchase  them, 
they  should  be  bought  and  sold  as  a  mercantile  transaction 
but  not  held  to  wait  completion  of  a  new  mill,  or  repairs 
on  an  old  one. 

Most  Profitable  Size  of  Mills. 

There  are  two  ways  in  which  the  cotton  oil  business  may 
be  made  to  pay.  ( i )  Build  a  large  mill  in  a  railroad 
centre,  where  it  is  easy  to  draw  large  quantities  of  seed 
from  a  large  territory.  (2)  Build  a  small  mill  in  a  small 
town,  with  scant  railroad  facilities  and  depend  mostly  on 
wagon  seed,  and  depend  on  home  demand  for  all  of  the 
products,  except  oil.  The  large  mill  has  to  work  harder 
for  its  supplies  of  seed,  but  is  not  hampered  by  local  com- 
petition in  any  one  place,  because  if  seed  should  become  too 
high  in  one  town,  it  can  easily  abandon  that  town  and  find 
another  one. 

In  the  matter  of  disposing  of  products ;  by  reason  of  hav- 
ing large  quantities  to  dispose  of,  the  large  mill  is  in  good 
shape  to  supply  to  the  export  market  and  thus 
make  large  sales  as  easy  as  small  sales.  But 
the  advantage  which  a  large  mill  possesses  that  out- 
weighs all  the  others,  is  that  the  volume  of  its  business  will 
justify  it  in  employing  competent  men  who  will  be  able  to 
turn  out  the  very  highest  class  products,  and  who  will  be 
able  to  carry  the  process  very  much  further  than  less  com- 


HISTORY    AND    COMMERCIAL    FEATURES.  23 1 

petent  men.  This  would  consist  in  refining  the  oil,  mak- 
ing soap,  etc.,  also  in  making  fertilizers  and  stock  feed. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  small  mill  has  distinct  advantages 
of  its  own.  These  advantages  have  become  accentuated 
of  late  years  since  the  value  of  meal  and  hulls  for  stock  feed 
has  become  better  known.  This  gives  the  local  mill  a 
local  market  for  all  of  its  products  except  oil,  that  is  to  say, 
about  85  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  cotton  seed. 

In  the  matter  of  purchasing  seed,  it  has  little  or  no 
freights  to  pay.  and  generally  has  the  co-operation  of 
neighboring  farmers.  It  is  sometimes  possible  to  exchange 
mill  products  for  seed,  thus  enabling  a  small  mill  to  ope- 
rate on  the  minimum  amount  of  capital.  These  small  mills 
vary  in  size  from  20  to  40  tons  of  cotton  seed  per  day  of 
24  hours.  They  generally  consume  from  2,000  to  4,000 
tons  of  cotton  seed  in  one  season. 

The  large  mills  in  railroad  centres  have  capacities  rang- 
ing from  100  to  150  tons  of  seed  in  24  hours,  and  consum- 
ing from  10,000  to  20.000  tons  of  seed  in  one  season. 

The  small  local  mill  idea  is  growing  in  popularity,  and 
some  predict  that  it  will  finally  take  possession  of  the  field. 
But  there  is  ample  field  for  the  large  central  oil  mill,  pro- 
vided the  business  is  worked  out  to  a  logical  extent  and 
more  attention  paid  to  producing  finer  products  at  higher 
prices.  It  may  even  reach  a  position  where  it  can  purchase 
the  oil  from  the  small  local  mills,  and  make  much  profit  by 
turning  this  oil  into  high  price  products. 

In  all  kinds  of  manufacturing,  the  cost  of  raw  material 
forms  a  smaller  and  smaller  percentage  of  the  value  of  the 
mill  products,  as  these  mill  products  become  finer  in 
quality.  For  this  reason,  variation  in  the  cost  of  raw  ma- 
terial is  of  the  least  consequence  to  a  mill  turning  out  the 
finest  or  most  finished  products.  This  is  exhibited  by  the 
following  examples: 


232  HISTORY   AND   COMMERCIAL   FEATURES. 

EXAMPLE  (1.)  ORDINARY  PROCESS. 

Per  cent,  of  value  of  products. 

Cost  of  seed $12.00  67 

Cost  of  working.  .  .  .      3.00  17 


Cost   of   product.  ..  .$15.00  84 

Value  of  product — 
crude  oil,  meal, 
hulls    $18.00  100 


Profit $  3.00  16 

EXAMPLE  (2.)  AMPLIFIED  PROCESS. 

Per  cent,  of  value  of  products. 

Cost  of  seed $12.00  30 

Cost  of  working 20.00  50 


Cost  of  product ....  $32.00  80 

Value  of  product — 
butter  oil,  salad 
oil,  compound  lard, 
butterine,   beef   ...$40.00  100 


Profit    $  8.00  20 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  examples  that  in  the  first 
case  a  rise  in  the  price  of  seed  means  a  rise  on  67  per  cent, 
of  the  value  of  the  product,  and  that  a  rise  of  $3  would 
destroy  the  profits. 

But  in  the  second  example,  a  rise  in  the  price  of  seed 
only  affects  30  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the  product,  and 
a  rise  of  $3  would  only  cut  down  the  profit  from  20  per 


HISTORY    AND    COMMERCIAL    FEATURES.  233 

cent,  to  \2\  per  cent.  It  would  require  a  rise  of  $8  per  ton 
on  seed  to  destroy  all  the  profit. 

These  examples  show  that  refinements  in  manufacturing 
depend  more  on  knowledge  and  skill  than  upon  raw  ma- 
terial. 

It  is  believed  that  there  is  but  little  difference  in  the  profits 
between  operating  a  ioo-ton  mill  in  a  railroad  centre,  and 
operating  a  40-ton  mill  in  a  small  town  surrounded  by  cot- 
ton plantations.  The  distinct  advantages  of  each  are  about 
offset  by  distinctive  disadvantages. 

The  hundred-ton  mill  is  able  to  operate  on  somewhat  less 
expense  for  labor  and  fixed  charges;  but  it  must  pay 
freights  on  hulls  and  meal  to  the  consuming  markets. 

The  forty-ton  mill  operates  with  somewhat  more  expense 
for  labor  and  fixed  charges ;  but  it  has  practically  no  freight 
to  pay  on  seed  or  hulls  and  meal. 

At  the  present  time,  there  seems  to  be  more  profit  in 
operating  mills  within  the  limits  of  40  to  100  tons  capacity 
than  those  either  smaller  or  larger. 

The  following  table  shows  complete  cost  or  capital  in- 
vestment necessary  for  cotton  seed  oil  mills,  refineries 
and  cotton  ginneries. 


o 

x 

C 
o 

o 

X 

o 


dub  Xainuto 
'll!W  'UO  'i'biox 


'SUBld   puc 

'suio    pums 
x;s    'Aaaunjo 


Xj3tlg3>f   PUB 

W.K   UO  IBIOX 


•snBjd  pnB 
!  AaaniqoBtu 
!!■  Pub  Snt 
-p[inq     3uip 


asnoq  iB3j\[ 
pnB  pass 
Pub    saaiiog 

'nw  no  i'b;ox 


•noi;D3ja  1     1     I     1 

pno  jiiSisjj  of    V 


goo© 

s*  1  I  I 


I  §  1  1 

■a    in    ia    uf 


§  a  & 


§  i 


I    I    §-    §-    §- 

<-t       CO       c<3       «o       OJ 


snBid  pnBiijo 
aprua  suBtn 
°1  HW  no 
ni      Aaaimp 

-bim  asmo  ay 


-H  AVwtnipBjv 

moos'  sssjd 


A"ld 

-ans      J31BA\ 
puB     ip}i*\s 

H  '«  pUBpUBI 


sasnoq  jbsim 

J)UB        p  3  3  S 

,J3noa  mw 

Ito     Stupnp 
-ai    'sSuippjng 


suoi  at'sjnoq 
f-^aoj  AjiDBdBO 


i  1  § 

ffl        0»       M 


i  §  i 

<m~     of     of 


1111 


o      o      g> 

2    2° 
S    §    8 


HISTORY   AND   COMMERCIAL   FEATURES.  235 

The  estimates  in  table  XII.  are  based  on  refineries  de- 
signed to  turn  out  a  variety  of  products,  such  as  summer 
yellow,  butter  oil,  white  oils  and  miners'  oils. 

If  it  is  desired  to  make  winter  oils  also,  the  cost  would 
be  increased  about  50  per  cent.  If  only. summer  yellow  oil 
is  to  be  produced,  the  cost  would  be  about  50  per  cent,  less 
than  the  table. 

The  cost  of  a  crude  cotton  seed  oil  mill  may  be  said  to  be 
about  $1,000  per  ton  (of  seed  in  24  hours)  capacity. 

The  cost  of  refinery  of  about  the  character  contemplated  in 
Table  XII.  ranges  from  $300  to  $500  per  ton  capacity  of 
the  crude  oil  mill. 

Transportation  and  Uses  of  Cotton  Oil. 

The  final  test  of  cotton  seed  oil  is  edibility.  The  high- 
est prices  can  only  be  obtained  on  this  basis.  When  the 
quality  of  an  oil  falls  below  this,  it  goes  into  other  uses 
and  brings  lower  prices.  In  the  early  days  of  the  business, 
this  oil  was  looked  upon  entirely  as  an  adulterant.  It  was 
shipped  to  Italy  and  France  as  an  adulterant  for  olive  oil, 
and  was  shipped  to  the  lard  works  or  "packing  houses" 
of  the  United  States,  as  an  adulterant  for  lard.  These 
uses  still  continue,  but  are  growing  into  more  general 
favor  on  the  merits  of  the  oil  itself.  There  is  still  some 
prejudice  against  it.  2nd  justly  so  when  used  as  an  adul- 
terant. But  commerce  is  becoming  accustomed  to  "com- 
pound lard,"  and  "lard  compound,"  and  other  names  sug- 
gestive of  the  mixed  character  of  the  product;  and  the 
business  of  making  acceptable  culinary  articles  from  cot- 
ton seed  oil  has  become  legitimate  and  desirable.  Some 
of  these  compounds  contain  pure  hog  lard;  while  some 
contain  none  at  all,  and  are  advertised  as  such.  It  is  es- 
timated that  30  per  cent,  of  the  cotton  oil  produced  in 
the  United  States  is  consumed  in  this  manner.  Most  of 
the  packing  houses,  where  these  lard  compounds  are  made, 
are  in  the  West.  This  business  has  recently  commenced 
to  grow  in  the  South. 


236  HISTORY   AND   COMMERCIAL   FEATURES. 

Formerly,  owing  to  lack  of  skill  at  the  oil  mills,  the  oil 
was  shipped  in  the  crude  state,  to  these  distant  works, 
where  it  was  first  refined  and  then  utilized.  Latterly,  the 
mills  have  begun  refining  the  oil  before  shipping,  thus 
making  the  additional  profit. 

Oil  is  sold  nominally  by  the  gallon,  but  actually  by  the 
pound.  The  commercial  gallon  of  cotton  seed  oil,  crude  or 
refined,  weighs  y\  pounds.  When  oil  is  sold,  the  net 
weight  is  divided  by  y\  in  order  to  reduce  it  to  gallons.  In 
practice,  this  would  often  leave  awkward  fractions,  so  the 
custom  is  to  multiply  the  weight  by  2,  and  divide  by  15, 
thus  leaving  any  fraction  as  I5ths. 

Previous  to  about  1886,  the  standard  package  for  both, 
crude  and  refined  cotton  oil  was  second-hand  kerosene 
barrels.  These  were  cleaned  with  hot  steam,  until  they 
had  no  odor  of  kerosene,  and  were  lined  with  glue  to  en- 
sure tightness.  If  the  work  of  cleaning  is  properly  done, 
this  makes  an  acceptable  package.  As  the  business  grew,, 
many  became  careless  in  cleaning  the  barrels,  and  many 
used  varnish  barrels  and  linseed  oil  barrels.  This  engen- 
dered a  prejudice  against  all  second-hand  barrels.  At  the: 
same  time,  the  demand  for  second-hand  kerosene  oil  bar- 
rels became  greater  than  the  supply,  and  within  a  very 
short  while,  it  became  the  standard  practice  to  use  new 
barrels. 

The  use  of  tank  c?rs  for  domestic  shipments  has  been 
steadily  superseding  barrels.  Most  of  the  packing  houses 
own  large  numbers  of  tank  cars,  which  they  send  out  to 
oil  mills  for  their  oil.  Most  of  the  large  mills  also  own. 
tank  cars,  in  which  they  ship  their  product,  and  which 
they  often  use  for  purchasing  crude  oil  from  small  mills, 
which  are  not  equipped  with  refineries.  Tank  cars  for 
cotton  oil  generally  hold  6,000  to  7,000  gallons,  or  45,000 
to  52,500  pounds.  This  is  the  most  convenient  way  to 
transport  oil  of  all  grades.  They  are  also,  to  some  extent, 
being  used  for  soap  stock,  or  the  residues  from  refining. 

Tank  cars  are  provided  with  coils  of  pipe  on  the  inside, 


238  HISTORY    AND   COMMERCIAL    FEATURES. 

so  arranged  that  hot  steam  may  be  used  to  thaw  out  the 
oil  when  it  is  congealed  by  cold  weather.  It  is  import- 
ant to  see  that  these  coils  are  always  in  good  order,  so  that 
no  steam  may  be  blown  direct  into  the  oil. 

Oil  for  export  must,  of  course,  be  put  up  in  barrels.  It 
is  essential  that  the  barrels  be  first-class,  otherwise  there 
will  be  great  loss  from  leakage  under  the  numerous  hand- 
lings which  they  undergo. 

A  small  amount  of  oil  is  now  being  exported  in  tank 
steamships,  arranged  to  carry  it  in  bulk,  in  compartments. 
These  ships  ply  between  Southern  ports  of  America,  where 
there  are  large  storage  tanks,  and  certain  ports  of  Europe, 
where  there  are  similar  facilities. 

About  65  per  cent,  of  all  the  cotton  oil  produced  in  the 
United  States  is  exported.  About  one-third  of  this,  be- 
ing the  best  grades,  goes  to  Holland,  for  use  in  making 
artificial  butter,  which  reaches  its  perfection  in  that  coun- 
try. The  finest  grades  of  summer  yellow  oil  are  known  in 
the  trade  as  "butter  oil."  Some  of  the  best  grades  of 
oil  also  go  to  Southern  European  ports  for  admixture 
with  olive  oil,  and  also,  to  some  extent,  for  an  edible  oil 
under  its  own  name.  South  Europeans  have  always 
been  accustomed  to  eating  olive  oil,  as  other  people  eat 
butter,  and  the  poorer  classes  accept  cotton  oil  as  a  cheap 
substitute.  Large  quantities  of  inferior  grades,  being 
about  one-third  of  all  our  exports,  go  to  Marseilles  and 
neighboring  ports  for  soap  making. 

Inferior  oils  are  frequently  bleached  by  sulphuric  acid 
at  the  refineries  into  "white  oil,"  and  used  as  an  illumin- 
ant,  in  place  of  lard  oil.  The  principal  use  of  this  oil  is 
for  admixture  with  petroleums  of  high  flashing  point,  to 
be  burned  in  miners'  lamps.  This  grade  of  white  cotton 
oil  is  generally  known  as  "miners'  oil."  It  should  not  be 
confused  with  prime  white  oil,  which  is  bleached  from 
first  quality  summer  yellow,  by  the  use  of  fullers  earth,  and 
which  is  used  in  compound  lard. 

There  are  many  minor  uses  for  cotton  oil.  among  which 


HISTORY    AND    COMMERCIAL    FEATURES.  239 

may  be  mentioned  the  packing  of  sardines  and  similar 
fish.  It  has  been  frequently  tried  as  an  adulterant  for  lin- 
seed oil,  or  as  a  substitute  for  it,  m  painting.  The  dif- 
ficulty has  always  been,  that  in  its  natural  state,  cotton 
oil  will  not  dry  out  and  leave  the  paint  hard.  Numerous 
processes  have  been  exploited  for  making  it  into  a  drying 
oil;  but  none  have  so  far  been  a  commercial  success.  It 
has  often  been  tried  as  a  lubricant,  but  its  gummy  nature 
prevents  any  success  in  this  field,  except  for  the  most  or- 
dinary purposes.  Several  processes  have  been  tried  for 
removing  the  gum  or  resin.  There  have  been  some  lab- 
oratory experiments,  which  seem  to  indicate  that  a  use- 
ful gum  may  be  extracted  and  used  as  a  substitute  for 
rubber,  while  leaving  the  oil  in  a  condition  to  use  as  a  lu- 
bricant, but  as  yet,  these  processes  have  not  been  com- 
mercially successful. 

Transportation  and  Use  of  Cotton  Seed  Meal. 

When  the  oil  lias  been  extracted  by  hydraulic  presses, 
there  remains  the  cake.  Formerly,  when  the  presses  were 
differently  constructed  and  the  processes  were  somewhat 
different,  this  cake  was  softer  than  it  is  at  the  present 
time.  It  was  largely  exported  as  cake,  and  sold  for  cat- 
tle food.  It  was  broken  into  pieces  and  fed,  in  connection 
with  other  material.  In  some  cases  it  was  ground  fine, 
after  being  exported,  and  fed  in  this  condition.  It  has 
been  found  that  the  finely  ground  meal  mixes  more  readi- 
ly, and  is  more  digestible  than  cake,  and  so  the  practice 
of  feeding  cake  has  been  nearly  abandoned.  The  Ger- 
mans were  the  first  to  realize  the  value  of  fine  grinding. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  business,  very  small  quantities 
of  cake,  and  large  quantities  of  meal  were  exported  to 
Germany,  while  England  and  other  countries  preferred 
cake.  In  some  cases  this  preference  for  cake  was  caused 
by  the  fear  of  adulteration  in  meal. 

Cake  was  formerly  packed  into  coarse  second-hand 
gunny  sacks  and    driven  in  with    a    mallet,    in    order    to 


240  HISTORY   AND   COMMERCIAL   FEATURES. 

make  a  firm  package.  These  packages  varied  in  weight, 
but  generally  weighed  about  200  pounds. 

Meal  for  export  is  ground  very  fine,  and  bolted  clean. 
It  is  generally  put  up  in  100  pound  sacks,  as  one-twenti- 
eth of  a  "short  ton"  01  2,000  pounds;  but  for  special  orders 
it  is  sometimes  put  up  in  112  pound  sacks,  as  one-twenti- 
eth of  the  "long  ton,"  of  2,240  pounds,  and  sometimes  in 
110  pounds  sacks,  as  50  kilograms.  All  meal  for  domestic 
trade  is  put  up  in  100  pound  sacks. 

The  domestic  demand  was  at  first  entirely  as  a  fertilizer, 
both  for  use  direct  on  the  soil,  and  for  mixing  with  other 
ingredients  to  make  a  commercial  fertilizer.  This  de- 
mand grew  to  immense  proportions  in  the  Southeastern 
States,  where  fertilizers  were  universally  used.  From  1880 
to  1890,  about  90  per  cent,  of  the  meal  made  in  that  sec- 
tion was  used  for  fertilizer,  about  5  per  cent,  was  exported, 
and  the  remainder  was  fed  to  cattle. 

In  the  Southwest,  where  but  little  fertilizer  was  requir- 
ed, about  75  per  cent,  of  the  meal  and  cake  was  exported 
to  Europe  for  cattle  feeding,  while  the  remainder  was  fed 
to  cattle,  at  home. 

At  the  present  time,  cattle  feeding  has  become  such  an 
extensive  business,  both  in  the  Southeast  and  Southwest, 
that  of  the  whole  amount  of  meal  produced  in  both  sec- 
tions, about  35  per  cent  is  fed  to  cattle,  about  35  per  cent, 
is  used  for  fertilizers,  and  the  remainder  is  exported  for 
feed. 

It  has  been  so  clearly  demonstrated  by  experiment 
stations,  and  by  other  practical  tests,  that  the  principal 
value  of  cotton  seed  meal  lies  in  its  feeding,  rather  than  its 
fertilizing  qualities,  that  it  is  only  a  matter  of  time  when 
practically  all  of  the  meal  will  be  fed.  The  fertilizer  works 
are  already  accommodating  themselves  to  this  condition, 
and  are  partly  substituting  other  sources  of  nitrogen  for 
the  cotton  seed  meal. 

The  sacks,  in  which  meal  is  shipped,  consist  largely  of 
second  hand  wheat    sacks,    made    originally  to  hold  10c 


HISTORY    AND    COMMERCIAL    FEATURES.  24 1 

pounds  of  wheat  for  export  from  California  to  the  Orient. 
These  sacks  are  often  re-shipped  with  linseed  to  Eastern 
ports  of  the  United  States.  When  the  linseed  is  used, 
the  sacks  are  cleaned  and  put  up  in  bales  of  1,000.  and  sold 
to  cotton  oil  mills.  Fertilizer  factories  and  cattle  feeders 
frequently  return  sacks  to  the  oil  mills,  to  be  used  again 
and  again.  Meal  is  sold  by  gross  weight,  that  is,  no  de- 
duction is  made  for  the  weight  of  the  sacks. 

It  is  very  difficult  10  empty  absolutely  all  the  meal  from 
the  sacks,  and  hence  the  returned  sacks  are  somewhat 
heavier  than  they  wtre  at  first,  so  that  notwithstanding 
their  damaged  condition,  necessitating  repairs,  the  oil  mills 
are  always  willing  to  allow  consumers  the  full  price  of  new 
sacks  for  all  those  returned. 

Transportation  and  Uses  of  Cotton  Seed  Hulls. 

The  first  use  of  cotton  seed  hulls  was  for  fuel  to  run  the 
oil  mills.  Mills  of  forty  tons  (seed)  capacity,  and  upward, 
always  made  enough  hulls  for  a  full  supply  of  fuel,  even 
with  very  ordinary  steam  plants;  with  good,  econom- 
ical engines,  there  was  considerable  surplus;  the  larger 
the  mill,  the  greater  the  surplus.  It  soon  became  a  prob- 
lem to  dispose  of  this  large  amount  of  useless  product.  It 
was  difficult  to  even  give  it  away.  The  bulky  and  light 
nature  of  the  materi.'d,  made  it  difficult  of  transportation, 
and  so  it  was  not  of  much  fuel  value  to  other  plants  located 
at  a  distance  from  the  oil  mill.  A  ton,  in  its  loose  state, 
occupies  about  300  cubic  feet,  and  is  equal  in  fuel  value  to 
one-quarter  ton  of  coal,  which  occupies  about  ten  cubic  feet. 

The  use  of  cotton  seed  hulls  as  a  cattle  food  was  tried 
experimentally  in  the  early  days  of  the  oil  mill,  but  its  true 
value,  in  comparison  with  other  food  stuffs  was  not  real- 
ized until  1885  to  1890.  About  this  time,  systematic 
cattle  feeding  commerced,  as  an  adjunct  to  oil  milling  in 
the  Southwest.  Large  herds  of  Texas  cattle  were  bought 
at  low  rates,  and  fed  in  pens  near  the  mills,  and  when  fat, 
shipped  to  the  packing  houses.     The  value  of  hulls  as  a 


242 


HISTORY    AND    COMMERCIAL    FEATURES. 


cattle  food  was  thus  practically  demonstrated  on  a  large 
scale,  so  that  there  arose  a  steady  demand  for  hulls  from 
many  sources,  all  over  the  cotton  growing  States.  The 
problem  of  transportation  then  began  to  receive  atten- 
tion. Hulls  were  at  first  shipped  in  bulk  in  box  cars.  By 
careful  tramping,  about  twelve  tons  may  be  loaded  into  a 
car.  Many  hulls  are  still  shipped  in  this  way,  some  are 
put  up  by  machinery  into  sacks;  but  the  most  general 
method  is  to  pack  them  into  bales  about  two  feet  square, 
weighing  about  ioo  pounds.  In  this  shape,  15  tons  may 
be  easily  and  quickly  loaded  into  a  box  car. 

The  style  of  bale  now  in  use  is  not  entirely  satisfactory, 
for  the  reason  that  it  is  only  partially  covered,  and  there 
is  great  waste  in  handling.  There  is  a  demand  for  some 
better  method  of  packing  cotton  seed  hulls  for  ship- 
ment. 

TABLE  XIII. 

SHOWING  VALUE  AND  AMOUNT  OF  SEED, 
CRUSHED,  AND  VALUE  OF  CRUDE  MILL 
PRODUCTS,  1870  TO  1900. 


Year. 

No.  of 
Mills. 

Tons  of  Seed. 

Value  of  Seed. 

Value  of  Products. 

18T0 

26 

80,000 

S      640,000 

$    1,500,000 

1875 

35 

150,000 

1,500,000 

2,900.000 

1880 

45 

280,000 

2,800,000 

5,100.000 

1885 

80 

550,000 

5,500  000 

9,600,000 

lS'JO 

119 

1,000,000 

12,000.000 

23  800,000 

1895 

250 

1,800,000 

21,600.000 

33,000.000 

l'XO 

400 

1,900,000 

23,800.000 

35,000,000 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Cotton  Seefc  ©il.    flDecbanical  features  anfc 
fl>rocesses. 

The  previous  chapter  outlined  the  schedule  of  oil  mill 
operations.  This  chapter  will  discuss  the  machines  for  per- 
forming these  operations. 

Seed  Handling  Machinery — Conveyors. 

Seed  are  moved  horizontally  by  spiral  steel  conveyors, 
shown  in  Figure  68.     Conveyors  are  right  and  left  hand,  as 


3 

Fig.  68.     Right  and  Left  Hand  Conveyors. 

shown.  Either  hand  conveyor  may  be  made  to  carry  seed  in 
either  direction,  according  to  the  direction  it  is  made  to 
revolve. 

It  is  the  best  practice  to  have,  as  far  as  possible,  all  con- 
veyors of  the  same  size  and  hand  in  any  one  mill,  in  order  to 
facilitate  repairs,  and  the  keeping  of  spare  parts  on  hand. 


4-Inch  Conveyor  Box. 


*-  7    IN.— 


6-Inch  Conveyor  Box. 


10     IN. 


13  IN. 


[2-Inch  Conveyor  Box. 


17  IN 


9-Inch  Conveyor  Box.  16-Inch  Conveyor  Box. 

Fig.  69.     Wooden  Boxes  for  Conveyors. 


HISTORY    AND    COMMERCIAL    FEATURES 


245 


Most  mills  use  only  right  hand  conveyors,  except  for  special 
purposes,  as  shown  in  the  last  two  examples  in  Figure  68. 
Mills  of  smaller  capacity  than  40  tons  per  day  generally  use 
6-inch  conveyors.  Mills  from  40  to  80  tons  use  9-inch,  while 
12-inch  is  used  in  large  mills.  For  the  heavy  work  of  un- 
loading seed  from  cars  in  any  size  mill,  the  larger  sizes  are 
used,  even  up  to   16-inch.     The  size  of  conveyors  for  this 


Fig.  70.     Right  Angle  Conveyor  Drive. 


work  is  determined  more  by  the  amount  of  seed  likely  to  be 
received  by  rail  in  a  given  time,  than  by  the  actual  capacity  of 
the  mill. 

Conveyors  run  in  wooden  boxes,  lined  in  the  bottom  with 
sheet  iron.  Figure  69  shows  the  proper  size  to  make- boxes 
for  conveyors. 

A  corner  may  be  turned  by  the  use  of  the  device  shown  in 
Figure  70. 


246 


MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES. 


Conveyors  may  be  run  at  an  inclination  of  as  much  as  30 
degrees  from  the  horizontal,  if  occasion  requires. 

The  following  table  shows  the  speeds  and  capacities  of 
various  size  conveyors  for  use  in  oil  mills.  This  data  is  based 
on  the  best  practice;  but  it  is  possible  to  operate  conveyors 
at  50  per  cent,  higher  speeds,  with  corresponding  increased 
capacities.  It  is  also  possible  to  run  them  as  slow  as  may  b? 
desired. 

TABLE  XIV. 

SHOWING  SIZES,  SPEEDS  AND  WORKING  CA- 
PACITIES OF  STANDARD  STEEL  CONVEYORS 
FOR  COTTON  SEED. 


Diameter 

Length 

Size  Driving  End 

Revolutions 

Tons 

Inches 

Feet 

Inches 

Per  Minute. 

Per  Hour 

4 

8 

I 

60 

V4 

6 

IO 

I# 

80 

2 

9 

IO 

I# 

IOO 

4 

12 

12 

2 

I20 

8 

16 

12 

2  or  3 

I20 

12 

Elevators. 

Seed  are  moved  vertically  by  elevators.  The  most  com- 
mon form  is  shown  at  the  left  of  Figure  124.  The  pulley  in 
the  top  should  be  20  to  40  inches  in  diameter — the  larger 
the  better.  For  heavy  work,  such  as  unloading  seed  from 
cars,  pulleys  as  large  as  60  inches  are  sometimes  used.  The 
pulley  in  the  bottom  is  usually  smaller,  say  12  to  20  inches. 

The  capacity  of  an  elevator  depends  upon  the  size  of  the 
cups,  their  distance  apart,  and  the  speed  of  the  belt.  Oil 
mills  smaller  than  40  tons  capacity  generally  use  elevators 
with  belts  6  inches  wide,  which  carry  5x3  cups.  Mills  from 
40  to  80  tons  use  belts  8  inches  wide,  which  carry  7x4 
cups,  and  larger  mills  use  10  to  12  inch  belts,  and  cups  in 
proportion.  In  all  mills,  the  elevators  for  unloading  cars  ar? 
made  large  or  small,  (as  in  the  case  of  conveyors),  accord- 


Fig.  71.     Sprocket  Chain  Elevators. 


248  MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES. 

ing-  to  the  amount  of  seed  to  be  handled  in  a  given  time,  re- 
gardless of  capacity  cf  the  mill. 

Elevators  generally  run  50  revolutions  of  head  pulley  per 
minute.     They  may  he  run  as  slow  as  30  or  as  fast  as  70. 

Figure  71  shows  two  forms  of  sprocket-chain  elevators, 
which  are  in  use  in  many  mills.  It  is  mostly  a  matter  of 
personal  opinion  whether  the  belt  or  chain  elevator  gives  the 
best  satisfaction. 

It  frequently  occurs  that  the  superintendent  of  a  mill  will 
prefer  some  special  machine,  on  account  of  his  familiarity 
and  skill  with  it.  Thus  this  machine  is  the  best  under  his 
management.  Another  machine  may  be  equally  as  good  for 
the  purpose  in  the  hands  of  a  man  who  is  accustomed  to  it. 

Receiving  Seed — From  Cars. 

Seed  mostly  reach  the  mills  loose  in  box  cars.  The  cars 
are  weighed  on  track  scales,  and  run  up  alongside  conveyors. 
Seed  are  thrown  cut  into  conveyor  with  broad,  short  pitch- 
forks, or  with  scoop  shovels.  The  conveyor  delivers  them  to 
an  elevator  which  takes  them  to  the  top  of  the  seed  house 
and  delivers  them  to  conveyors  which  distribute  them  over 
the  house. 

From  Wagons. 

Wagons  usually  drive  up  to  the  seed  house  and  have  their 
seed  unloaded  by  hand  through  windows  direct  into  the 
house.  In  some  cases,  where  there  is  a  very  large  wagon 
trade,  there  are  unloading  conveyors  and  elevators  arranged 
on  the  same  plan  as  for  unloading  cars. 

The  Milling  Process — Cleaning. 

The  seed  are  brought  from  the  seed  house  to  the  mill  by 
means  of  conveyors  and  elevators. 

It  is  necessary  to  free  the  seed  from  two  classes  of  foreign 
matter :  ( 1 )  Matter,  such  as  sand,  that  is  smaller  than  the 
seed;  (2)  matter,  such  as  bolls  and  locks  of  cotton,  that  is 


MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES.  25 1 

larger  than  seed.  Both  of  these  objects  are  accomplished  by 
means  of  revolving  screens,  covered  with  perforated  metal 
or  wire  cloth :  In  the  first  instance  having  perforations  -£" 
diameter,  and  in  the  second,  §".  Sometimes  there  is  one 
screen  far  each  of  these  operations,  and  sometimes  the  two 
are  accomplished  by  one  screen,  having  (longitudinally) 
half  or  two-thirds  of  its  surface  covered  with  £"  perforations 
and  the  remainder  with  f".  Such  a  combined  boll  and  sand 
screen  is  shown  in  Figure  J2.  The  interior  construction  is 
similar  to  Figure  124. 

Seed  enters  at  left  hand,  or  higher  end.  Sand  is  removed 
by  first  part,  and  falls  out  behind.  Clean  seed  fall  into  con- 
veyor box.  Bolls  and  other  large  particles  fall  out  from 
inside  of  reel  on  the  floor  at  the  right.  Sometimes  magnets 
are  inserted  in  the  spouts  to  catch  particles  of  iron.  Some- 
times fans  are  introduced  under  the  screen,  to  blow  the  seed 
into  the  conveyor  and  leave  iron  and  other  heavy  particles  to 
fall  out  on  the  floor,  as  shown  in  Figure  73. 


2^2  MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES. 

Sand  and   Boll  Screen,  Fig.  73 — Lettering. 

A. — Revolving  reel. 

B. — Spout  where  tailings  fall  out. 

C. — Hopper  to  drop  seed  on  shaker. 

D. — Shaker  to  distribute  seed  in  broad  sheet  over  air 
blast. 

E. — Shaft  and  eccentric  to  operate  shaker. 

F. — Fan. 

G. — Blast  box  with  perforated  metal  side  to  let  out  air. 

H. — Gravity  spout  to  catch  nails  and  other  heavy  art'cles. 

J. — Conveyor  to  take  away  the  cleaned  seed. 

Mills  of  less  than  40  tons  capacity  generally  use  a  com- 
bined sand  and  boll  screen,  with  the  revolving  reel  about  5 
feet  diameter  and  10  to  12  feet  long.  Mills  of  40  to  60  tons 
capacity  use  combined  sand  and  boll  screen  5'xi4'.  Larger 
mills  use  separate  sand  screen  and  separate  boll  screen, 
5x14'. 

The  speed  of  the  reel  should  be  20  revolutions  per  minute. 

There  are  some  other  cleaning  methods  in  rare  use.  One 
of  them  consists  in  revolving  paddles  inside  of  stationary 
perforated  cage. 

In  many  cases,  the  cleaning  machinery  is  assisted  by  per- 
forated sheet  iron  bottoms  under  the  conveyors,  which  are 
used  for  unloading  seed  or  for  carrying  them  from  seed 
house  to  mill.  These  are  very  valuable  in  sandy  countries, 
where  an  unusual  quantity  of  sand  is  found  in  the  seed. 
This  eliminates  most  of  the  sand  before  the  seed  are  stored. 

In  the  material  collected  from  the  boll  screen  is  some  good 
seed  cotton.  This  is  picked  over  by  hand  and  ginned.  The 
lint  from  this  cotton  is  called  "grabots."  On  account  of  the 
quantities  of  iron  found  in  the  material,  which  is  liable  to 
strike  fire  on  the  gin  saws,  it  is  quite  dangerous  to  gin 
grabots.  For  this  reason  grabot  gins  should  be  isolated. 
Small  mills  usually  have  their  grabots  ginned  at  a  public 
ginnery.  Mills  of  100  tons  capacity  and  larger  frequently 
have  their  own  grabot  gin. 


Fig.  j$.      End  Section  Sand  and  Boll  Screen. 


254  MECHANICAL    FEATURES    'AND    PROCESSES. 

Linting. 

Prom  the  cleaning  processes,  seed  pass  to  the  linters, 
which  are  machines  for  removing  the  short  lint  which  is  left 
on  the  seed  by  the  gins.  Figures  75  and  76  are  general 
views,  showing  the  usual  arrangement  of  these  machines. 
Seed  are  fed  to  the  hoppers  above,  passed  through  the 
machine  and  taken  away  by  the  conveyor  below  in  front. 

Cotton  Seed  Linter,   Fig.  74 — Lettering. 

A. — Feed  box,  with  fluted  feed  roll. 

B. — Breast,  with  revolving  float. 

C. — Saws  on  cylinder. 

D. — Ribs  between  saws. 

E. — Breast  board  to  hold  ribs. 

F. — Brush  to  clear  saws. 

G.— Lint  flue. 

H. — Condenser,  perforated  drum. 

J. — Compression  roll. 

K. — Roll  of  lint  on  core. 

Process. 

Seed  are  fed  into  feed  box  A. 

Fluted  roll  feeds  them  regularly  into  breast,  where  float 
B  keeps  them  revolving  in  a  roll. 

Saws  remove  the  lint. 

Brush  clears  the  lint  from  saws  and  blows  it  against  con- 
denser drum. 

Revolving  drum  condenses  lint  into  a  roll. 

Ribs  D  hold  the  seed  back  and  make  them  fall  out  at  E. 

Formerly  the  flue  between  linter  and  condenser  was  made 
long,  and  was  provided  with  a  slatted  sub  flue,  for  sifting 
out  dust  from  the  cotton,  in  its  passage  to  the  condenser, 
but  it  has  been  found  that  they  were  of  no  material  advan- 
tage, and  they  are  now  made  as  short  as  possible,  as  shown 
in  Figure  74. 

There  has  been  some  effort  made  to  introduce  into  the 


2$()  MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES. 

larger  oil  mills  the  lint  flue  system,  making  one  condenser 
serve  several  linters,  as  in  cotton  ginneries.  This  would 
have  the  advantage  of  cleanliness,  most  of  the  dust  being 
blown  out  of  the  room  through  a  dust  pipe  over  the  con- 
denser. But  up  to  the  present  time,  the  system  has  not  been 
much  used. 

The  capacity  of  one  linter  is  rated  at  10  tons  of  seed  per 
day  of  24  hours;  but  this  may  be  varied  from  3  to  15  tons, 
according  to  the  speed  of  the  feed  r<  ill.  The  slower  this  runs, 
and  the  smaller  the  amount  put  through,  (generally  speak- 
ing) the  more  lint  may  be  taken  from  the  seed.  Most  oil 
mills  are  so  equipped  that  each  linter  takes  8  to  10  tons  per 
day. 

The  speed  of  the  saw  cylinder  should  be  about  350  revo- 
lutions per  minute. 

The  saws  of  linters  become  quickly  dulled,  and  thus  1(  s? 
some  of  their  caracity  to  remove  the  lint.  It  is  important 
to  keep  them  well  sharpened.  Each  oil  mill  should  have  a 
machine  for  sharpening  linter  saws,  and  there  should  be  on- 
or  two  extra  saw  cylinders,  so  that  they  may  be  sharpened 
while  others  are  being  used.  For  the  greatest  yield  of  lint 
the  saw  cylinders  should  not  run  more  than  one  week  without 
sharpening. 

In  the  cotton  gin,  it  is  not  permissible  to  have  the  saws 
too  sharp,  because  they  would  then  cut  the  fibres  of  cotton 
and  make  ''gin  cut  cotton." 

The  saws  must  have  teeth  of  proper  shape,  and  scmewhat 
smooth,  in  order  to  pull  the  lint  cff  the  seed,  rather  than  cut 
it.  But  in  the  oil  mill,  it  is  necessary  to  have  sharp  teeth  on 
the  linters,  in  order  to  cut  the  short  lint  off  the  seed  as 
closely  as  possible.  The  quality  of  this  lint  is  not  much 
depreciated  by  sharp  teeth.  This  lint  is  really  too  short  to  be 
pulled  off  the  seed,  but  must  be  cut  off. 

Formerly  it  was  not  considered  necessary  to  sharpen 
linter  saws  more  than  two  or  three  times  in  one  season.  The 
cotton  gins  did  not  clean  the  seed  as  well  as  they  do  now, 
and  hence  the  oil  mill  linters  made  a  good  yield  of  lint,  even 


Fig.  yy.     Cotton  Seed  Huller. 


MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES.  263 

with  dull  saws.  With  the  improvement  in  cotton  ginning, 
it  became  necessary  for  the  oil'mills  to  make  a  correspond- 
ing- improvement  in  the  linting. 

Huller. 

From  the  linters,  the  seed  pass  to  the  huller,  which  is  a 
machine  for  cutting  the  seed  to  pieces,  so  the  kernel  may  be 
separated  from  the  hull.  There  are  two  forms  of  huller  in 
general  use. 

Huller  Fig.  78— Lettering. 

A. — Seed  feeder.      (  See  also  Figure  81.) 

B. — Revolving  cylinder. 

C. — Cylinder  knives. 

D. — Concave  knives. 

E. — Wooden  staves  to  steady  the  concave  knives. 

F. — Clamps  to  hold  the  wooden  staves  in  place. 

G. — Conveyor  to  take  away  product. 

H. — Balancing  weights. 

The  cylinder  knives  have  four  cutting  edges.  One  set  of 
edges  are  used  until  dull,  (say  one  to  three  weeks)  when  all 
knives  are  turned  over,  to  bring  another  set  of  cutting  edges 
into  action.  When  all  of  the  edges  are  dull,  the  knives  are 
removed  and  ground.  It  is  generally  desirable  to  have  an 
extra  set  of  knives  on  hand,  so  that  one  set  may  be  grinding 
while  the  other  is  in  use.  On  account  of  the  high  speed  at 
which  the  knife  cylinder  revolves,  it  is  essential  that  it 
should  be  well  balanced.  In  order  to  keep  it  so,  the  knives 
should  be  weighed,  when  reground,  and  steps  taken  to  bring 
them  all  to  the  same  weight  by  bolting  on  metal  or  drilling 
out  metal.  Besides  doing  this,  after  the  knives  have  been 
bolted  in  place,  the  whole  cylinder  should  be  taken  out  and 
carefully  put  in  place  on  straight  edges  by  adjusting  the 
balance  weights  which  are  inside  the  hollow  cylinder. 

The  weights  must  be  so  adjusted  that  the  cylinder  is  not 


264  MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES. 

only  in  balance  while  standing,  but  also  while  running  at  its 
regular  speed.  It  is  quite  possible  to  so  adjust  the  weights 
in  opposite  sides  and  opposite  ends,  that  the  cylinder  as  a 
whole  is  in  balance  while  standing,  but  when  running  at  a 
high  speed,  each  end  might  be  out  of  balance  on  its  own 
account,  and  the  unbalanced  centrifugal  force  would  cause 
the  machine  to  shake.  In  balancing  a  huller  cylinder,  on 
straight  edges,  it  might  be  necessary  to  make  several  run- 
ning trials  before  it  is  put  in  perfect  running  balance. 

The  "concave"  knives  also  have  four  cutting  edges,  which 
are  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  cylinder  knives.  Each 
concave  knive  is  adjustable  to  and  from  the  line  of  cylinder 
knives  by  means  of  individual  set  screws.  The  usual  method 
of  procedure  for  setting  huller  knives  is,  when  all  are  sharp, 
set  up  each  concave  knife,  so  the  cylinder  knife  clears  it  about 
3-32",  and  run  the  machine  as  long  as  it  does  satisfactory 
work,  say  three  or  four  days,  then  set  the  concave  knives 
closer,  and  run  as  long  as  it  dees  good  work,  then  turn 
another  cutting  edge  on  concave  knives;  then,  when 
these  are  dull,  turn  a  new  edge  of  the  cylinder  knives,  and  so 
on,  until  all  of  the  eight  sets  of  sharp  edges  have  been  used. 
There  can  be  no  fixed  rule  about  this  procedure,  however, 
because  some  seed  are  more  difficult  to  cut  correctly  than 
others.  The  method  used  must  be  judged  entirely  by  the 
result.  Early  in  the  season,,  when  seed  are  full  of  sap,  the 
knives  must  be  very  sharp,  in  order  to  cut  the  seed  without 
mashing  them. 

At  that  time,  the  knives  have  to  be  set  quite  close,  in  order 
to  cut  fine,  because  the  juicy  meats  adhere  mere  firmly  to  the 
hull,  and  are  harder  to  separate.  Later  in  the  season,  when 
seed  are  dryer,  it  is  better  to  run  with  knife  space  more  op  in, 
both  to  save  the  knives  and  because  it  is  not  best  to  cut  dry 
seed  too  fine.  If  cut  too  fine,  much  of  the  meats  go  to  dust, 
and  attach  themselves  to  the  lint  on  the  hull,  so  that  they 
cannot  be  well  separated. 

In  grinding  these  knives,  it  is  important  to  leave  the  edges 
parallel  with  the  flat  of  the  knife.     Some  superintendents 


Fig.  78.      Section  Through  HulJer. 


MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES.  269 

erroneourly  suppose  that  the  edges  next  the  line  of  bolts  ( in 
Figure  78)  should  be  ground  somewhat  thinner  than  the 
outer  edges,  giving  a  concave  appearance.  In  this  case,  seed 
are  liable  to  lie  in  this  depression,  and  pass  without  being  cut. 

This  form  of  huller  is  made  with  knives  20  inches  long,  or 
with  knives  30  inches  long.  The  former  has  a  rated  capacity 
of  30  tons  of  seed  per  day  of  24  hours,  and  the  latter  6o 
tons.     They  will  safely  hull  50  per  cent,  more  than  this. 

It  is  recommended  that  mills  of  more  than  6o  tons  capacity 
have  at  least  two  hullers,  either  for  the  purpose  of  making 
the  load  lighter  on  each,  or  to  run  one  to  full  capacity,  and 
hold  the  other  in  reserve,  in  case  of  accident ;  and  to  run  each 
of  them  alternate  weeks. 

The  actual  cutting  capacity  of  a  huller  is  many  times  the 
rated  capacity.  The  point  that  practically  limits  the  capacity 
is  the  delivery  from  the  machine.  When  a  huller  chokes, 
from  apparent  overload,  it  is  always  found  that  the  deliver- 
ing side  is  choked.  If  the  conveyor  will  keep  the  product 
away  at  all  times,  it  is  nearly  impossible  to  choke  a  huller. 
In  case  of  a  choke,  relieve  the  delivery,  and  then  run  the 
engine  backward  about  one  turn. 

The  speed  of  the  20-inch  huller  should  be  1,300  revolu- 
tions per  minute.  The  speed  of  the  30-inch  huller  should  be 
900  revolutions  per  minute. 

It  is  not  recommended  to  run  them  at  lower  speeds. 

The  stated  speeds  may  be  exceeded  10  per  cent,  without 
damage,  if  the  cylinders  are  well  balanced.  They  cut  some- 
what better  at  the  higher  speeds,  but  are  more  apt  to  give 
trouble. 

Figure  yy  shows  a  general  view  of  this  huller. 

Another  popular  form  of  huller  is  shown  in  Figures  79 
and  80.  The  principles  of  operation  are  the  same  as  in  the 
previous  machine,  but  the  mechanical  construction  is  some- 
what different. 


2/0  MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES. 

Huller,  Fig.  80 — Lettering. 

A. — Seed  feeder  (See  also  Figure  81). 

B. — Revolving  cylinder. 

C. — Concave  knives. 

D. — Concave  frame. 

E. — Wooden  staves  to  steady  the  conca\  e  knives. 

F. — Adjustment  for  whole  concave. 

G. — Balancing  weights. 

K. — Point  of  delivery. 

J. — Pivot  on  which  concave  is  adjusted. 

K. — Conveyor  to  take  product  away. 

In  this  machine  the  cylinder  knives  are  carried  in  radial 
slots  in  the  cylinder,  instead  of  being  bolted  on,  as  in  the 
other  machine.  The  concave  knives  are  all  adjusted  at  one 
time,  by  moving  the  whole  concave  frame,  instead  of  by  the 
individual  screws,  as  in  the  other  machine. 

This  form  of  huller  is  made  in  only  one  s'ze,  viz  :  With  30 
inch  knives. 

The  speed  should  be  900  revolutions  per  minute.  This 
may  be  safely  exceeded  10  per  cent.,  but  should  not  be  de- 
creased. 

It  has  a  rated  capacity  of  80  tons  of  seed  per  day  of  24 
hours,  but  may  be  forced  to  50  per  cent,  beyond  this, 
especially  at  the  increased  speed. 

Knife  Grinder. 

Most  mills  are  equipped  with  knife-grinding  machines  for 
sharpening  huller  knives.  These  generally  corsist  of  a  large 
emery  wheel  and  a  self-operating  carriage  to  which  the  knife 
is  attached  to  be  ground.  Extra  sets  of  knives  are  kept 
ground,  ready  to  insert  in  the  hullers  when  necessary. 

Mills  below  60  tons  capacity  rarely  have  knife  grinders. 
They  send  their  knives  to  a  shop  or  a  neighboring  mill  to  be 
ground. 

The  earliest  machines  invented  for  hulling  cotton  seed, 
were  provided  with  sharp  knives  like  wood  planer  knives. 


n 

A 

a 

1 

Fig.  80.     Section  Through  Hnller. 


272  MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES. 

set  in  a  revolving  cylinder,  or  in  a  disc.  These  proved  en- 
tirely useless.  They  would  become  dulled  in  a  very  short 
time,  and  the  keen  edges  were  not  strong  enough  to  with- 
stand the  foreign  matter  which  always  finds  its  way  into  a 
huller,  no  matter  what  process  of  cleaning  precedes  it. 

Some  hullers  have  been  constructed  with  various  forms  of 
knife  carried  in  revolving  discs,  sometimes  horizontally,  and 
sometimes  vertically.  But  the  two  forms  here  illustrated 
and  described  are  the  only  ones  in  actual  use  in  first-class  oil 
mills  in  the  United  States. 

Separating  Screen. 

From  the  huller,  the  cut  seed  are  conveyed  to  a  revolving 
screen  similar  to  the  sand  and  boll  screen.  This  has  perfora- 
tions y-^2''  diameter.  The  meats  pass  through  the  perfora- 
tions, while  the  hulls  roll  out  as  tailings.  This  screen  rarely 
makes  a  perfect  separation,  and  as  the  products  leave  it,  there 
is  still  some  meat  in  the  hulls,  and  some  hull  in  the  meats.  A 
variety  of  supplementary  machines  are  in  use  for  further 
separation,  such  as  shaking  screens,  and  revolving  beaters  in 
perforated  cage's,  and  conveyors  with  perforated  bottoms. 
The  most  standard  practice  is  to  have  a  shaker  directly  under 
the  screen,  on  which  the  meats  fall  as  they  come  through  the 
main  screen.  This  shaker  removes  most  of  the  remaining 
hull  from  the  meats.  The  hulls  which  come  from  the  main 
screen  are  carried  to  the  place  of  storage  or  shipment  in  a 
conveyor  having  a  perforated  bottom,  so  that  the  meats  yet 
remaining  in  the  hulls  are  sifted  through  and  removed  by  a 
smaller  conveyor  underneath.  This  arrangement  is  shown 
in  Figure  82,  where  the  hull  conveyor  is  shown  as  right 
hand,  bringing  the  hulls  away  from  the  screen,  and  the  small 
conveyor  left  hand,  carrying  the  meats  back.  It  is  usual  to 
equip  40  to  60  feet  of  the  hull  conveyor  in  this  manner. 
Sometimes  this  portion  of  the  conveyor  is  made  with  cut 
flights,  or  interrupted  spirals,  for  the  purpose  of  stirring  the 
hulls  to  perfectly  shake  out  the  small  particles  of  entangled 
meats. 


MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES. 


275 


The  capacity  and  speeds  of  separator  screens  are  about  the 
same  as  sand  and  boll  screens. 

The  care  to  be  given  to  the  matter  of  perfect  separation  of 
hulls  and  meat  is  to  some  extent  dependent  upon  the 
market  conditions.  Under  any  and  all  circumstances  the 
greatest  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  meats  from  going 
away  with  the  hulls.  If  some  hulls  go  with  the  meats,  they 
are  finally  sold  with  the  cotton  seed  meal ;  and  if  the  particu- 
lar meal  market  supplied  by  the  mill  is  not  strict  about  qual- 
ity, no  harm  is  done.  Usually,  however,  the  cleanest  meal  is 
the  most  salable,  and  brings  the  greatest  net  returns. 


Rolls. 


Fig.  82.     Separating  Conveyor. 


From  the  separating  screens,  the  meats  pass  to  crushing 
rolls.  Figures  83  to  89  sbow  the  various  forms  of  rolls  in 
common  use.  They  all  accomplish  the  same  purpose  in  the 
same  way,  viz  :  By  crushing  the  meats  between  the  successive 
pairs  of  rolls.  The  various  forms  are  shown  to  illustrate  the 
different  manners  of  driving  the  upper  rolls  from  the  main  or 
bottom  roll.  All  of  the  various  methods  are  in  successful  use, 
and  the  particular  method  to  be  selected  is  mostly  determined 


Fig.  83.     Diagram  Serpentine  Drive  for  Rolls. 


Fig.  85.     Diagram  Tandem  Drive  for  Four-High  Rolls. 


Fig.  86.     Diagram  Tandem  Drive  for  Five-High  Rolls. 


Fig.  88. 


Diagram  Tandem  Drive  with  Tightener.    Five-High  Rolls. 


284  MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES. 

by  individual  taste.  The  belt-driven  rolls  have  the  advantage 
of  running  with  less  noise,  while  the  geared  rolls  give  some- 
what less  trouble. 

The  capacity  of  these  machines  is  governed  by  the  number 
of  rolls,  and  by  their  length.  The  smallest  size  has  4  rolls, 
24  inches  long,  and  is  suitable  for  mills  up  to  30  tons 
capacity.  The  largest  size  has  5  rolls,  60  inches  long,  and  is 
suitable  for  mills  80  to  150  tons  capacity. 

The  speed  of  rolls  should  be  180  revolutions  per  minute. 

This  may  be  varied  15  per  cent,  either  way. 

Heaters. 

From  the  rolls,  the  crushed  meats  are  taken  to  the  heater, 
where  they  are  cooked,  preparatory  to  being  pressed.  This  is 
one  of  the  most  important  operations  in  the  mill,  and  one  re- 
quiring the  most  care  and  personal  judgment.  The  objects 
of  cooking  are  (  1)  to  coagulate  the  albumen,  so  that  it  will 
remain  with  the  solid  matter  in  the  press  and  not  pass  off 
with  the  oil;  (2)  to  make  limpid  the  oil  contained  in  the 
meats,  so  it  will  more  readily  flow;  (3)  to  evaporate  the 
excess  of  moisture.  If  the  cooking  process  is  not  carried  far 
enough,  the  above  objects  will  not  be  accomplished,  and  the 
oil  will  be  mucilaginous  from  the  effects  of  the  contained 
albumen ;  the  yield  will  be  reduced,  and  the  excess  water  will 
cause  the  press  cloths  to  break.  If  the  process  is  carried  too 
far,  the  oil  cells  become  hardened,  the  yield  of  oil  is  reduced 
and  its  flavor  is  injured. 

There  is  no  general  rule  by  which  to  determine  how  long 
the  cooking  process  shall  continue.  It  must  be  determined  by 
judging  of  samples,  as  the  cooking  proceeds.  The  time  re- 
quired varies  from  15  to  40  minutes,  (usually  about  20  min- 
utes), according  to  style  of  heater  used,  amount  of  meats 
cooked  at  a  time,  amount  of  steam  pressure,  dryness  of 
steam,  and  character  of  meats  being  cooked.  In  any  par- 
ticular mill,  most  of  the  above  variables  are  known  and  can 
be  kept  reasonably  constant,  so  that  the  only  governing- 
element  to  be  considered  from  day  to  day,  is  the  quality  of 


Fig.  89.     Five-High  Geared  Rolls. 


MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES.  287 

meats.  This  generally  remains  constant  for  several  days  at 
a  time,  and  sometimes  for  several  weeks,  so  that  the  clock 
may  be  relied  upon  as  a  general  guide  for  cooking,  but 
always  supplemented  by  sampling,  and  by  observing  the 
actual  yield  of  the  oil  from  the  presses. 

The  above  relates  to  the  use  of  uniform  steam  pressure 
and  varying  time  of  cooking,  to  suit  different  kinds  of 
meats.  Another  plan,  highly  thought  of  by  many  good  oil 
mill  men,  is  to  keep  the  time  of  cooking  constant,  and  by 
adjusting  the  reducing  valve,  vary  the  steam  pressure  to 
suit  different  kinds  of  meats.  This  plan  is  more  convenient 
and  reliable,  for  the  reason  that  the  cook  can  usually  re- 
adjust the  valve  for  quicker  or  slower  cooking  better  than 
he  can  read  varying  periods  on  the  clock. 

Another  guide  is  temperature.  It  is  found  by  ex- 
periment that  the  proper  temperature  to  which  the  meats 
should  be  gradually  raised,  is  220  degrees  F.  Under  most 
circumstances,  a  reliable  dial  thermometer,  with  end  pro- 
jecting into  the  air  space,  inside  a  heater,  just  above  the 
meats,  would  indicate  when  the  process  is  complete,  but 
for  some  reason  this  method  has  never  come  into  practical 
use. 

The  thermometer  is  a  valuable  adjunct  to  a  heater,  and 
should  be  observed  as  a  check  on  other  methods.  A  heater 
is  always  provided  with  a  steam  gauge  connected  to  its 
heating  jacket,  and  the  attendant  is  careful  to  see  that  the 
pressure  is  always  constant  (50,  60,  and  sometimes  100 
pounds  per  square  inch),  but  this  alone  is  no  criterion  for 
the  temperature,  because  if  the  water  of  condensation  is 
not  kept  constantly  trapped  out.  the  temperature  will  run 
down,  while  a  high  pressure  is  still  indicated  on  the  gauge. 
One  of  the  most  important  things  in  cooking  is  to  keep 
water  of  condensation  trapped  out  of  the  steam  space 
around  the  heaters. 

The  usual  practice  is  to  install  two  52-inch  heaters  or  one 
72-inch  heater  for  every  two  presses  (say  mill  capacity  40 
tons  per  day).     The  52-inch  heater  cooks  enough  meats  at 


288  MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES. 

one  charge  for  two  presses,  and  with  50  pounds  steam 
pressure,  will  on  the  average,  complete  a  cooking  in  about  30 
minutes.  Thus  two  heaters  will  deliver  eight  pressfulls 
per  hour,  or  serve  the  two  presses  four  times  per  hour.  The 
72-inch  heater  cooks  enough  meats  at  one  charge  for  three 
pressfulls,  and  with  50  pounds  steam  pressure,  will,  on  the 
average,  complete  a  cooking  in  20  minutes,  thus  delivering 
nine  pressfulls  per  hour.  The  heaters  may  be  crowded 
beyond  the  capacity  above  mentioned  by  filling  them  fuller, 
(say  2},  pressfulls  for  the  52-inch  heaters,  and  3.I  for  the 
72-inch  heaters),  and  carrying  a  higher  steam  pressure. 
This  practice  always  leads  to  inferior  products  (making  oil 
too  red  and  cake  too  hard)  and  should  not  be  followed. 
Some  experts  even  prefer  to  cook  only  one  pressfull  in  a 
heater,  and  to  use  very  low  steam  pressure,  even  down  to 
25  pounds.  There  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  for  not 
cooking  as  much  as  two  pressfulls  at  a  time,  but  there  is 
some  virtue  in  the  lower  steam  pressures.  The  only  objec- 
tion is  that  it  requires  longer  time  to  cook,  and  hence, 
necessitates  the  installation  of  a  larger  number  of  heaters 
to  do  the  same  amount  of  work. 

A  mill  with  only  one  press  would  usually  have  one  52- 
inch  heater.  This  would  be  at  first  charged  with  enough 
meats  for  two  presses.  When  the  cooking  is  complete,  half 
the  meats  are  drawn  out  to  supply  the  press,  and  the  henter 
refilled  with  one  pressfull  of  raw  meats.  Treated  in  this 
way,  the  heater  will  turn  out  one  pressfull  every  15  to  20 
minutes,  and  the  cooking  will  g'o  on  ccntinuously,  instzad 
of  intermittently,  as  is  the  case  when  using  more  than  one 
heater. 

Figures  90  to  95  show  various  forms  and  arrangements 
of  heaters. 


i* 


p 

i-l 

O 


W 


MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES.  299 

Triple  Heater,  Fig.  05 — Lettering. 

A. — Charging  hoppers  to  hold  a  measured  quantity  of 
meats  while  waiting  to  be  dumped  into  heaters. 

B. — Cooking  heaters. 

C. — Conical  head  to  carry  stirrer  arms. 

D. — Stirrer  arms. 

E. — Space  for  steam  to  make  the  heat. 

F. — Vertical  stirrer  shaft. 

G. — Storage  or  sub-heater,  to  keep  meats  warm  while 
waiting  to  be  used. 

H. — Horizontal  driving  shaft. 

J. — Lid  partly  open  to  temper  the  cooking. 

K. — Gate  to  dump  charging  hopper. 

L. — Lever  to  operate  charging  gate. 

M. — Former  to  make  cakes  for  presses. 

Process. 

Charging  spouts  are  filled  with  crushed  meats  by  over- 
head conveyor. 

Gate  over  one  heater  is  opened,  and  the  charge  of  meat 
quickly  dumped  into  that  heater. 

After  a  few  minutes,  the  other  heater  is  similarly 
charged.  When  the  first  charge  has  become  cooked,  it  is 
dumped  into  storage  heater,  from  which  it  is  drawn  for  use 
in  the  "former,"  which  is  the  next  machine  in  order. 

First  heater  is  again  charged  as  before.  In  a  few  min- 
utes more,  the  second  heater  has  finished  its  cooking,  and 
it  is  dumped  into  the  storage  heater. 

Second  heater  is  recharged,  and  the  cycle  of  operations 
repeats  itself,  each  heater  being  charged  alternately,  and 
timed  to  finish  the  successive  cooking  at  equal  intervals. 

This  process  is  actually  intermittent,  but  is  in  effect, 
practically  continuous,  on  account  of  the  storage  of  the 
cooked  meats  in  the  lower  heater,  while  being  used. 

This  triple  arrangement  of  heaters  is  not  generally  in- 
stalled in  smaller  size  than  72-inch.       One  set  of  72-inch 


300  MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES. 

triple  heaters  is  about  right  for  supplying  5  to  6  presses,  or 
a  mill  capacity  of  100  to  120  tons  of  seed  per  day. 

Triple  heaters  are  not  so  much  in  vogue  as  formerly. 
The  arrangement  shown  in  Figure  00  is  almost  universally 
adopted  for  the  smaller  size  heaters,  and  in  fact,  now  gener- 
ally preferred  for  all  sizes. 

There  are  various  methods  of  driving  the  stirrer  shafts 
in  heaters,  as  shown  in  the  different  engravings. 

Figure  90  shows  four  heaters  driven  from  a  single 
underneath  horizontal  shaft,  parallel  with  the  line  of 
heaters.  Figure  91  shows  the  same  general  arrangement, 
except  that  each  heater  is  independently  driven.  Figure  93 
shows  two  heaters  independently  driven  by  underneath 
shafts  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  the  heaters. 

Figure  92  shows  a  form  of  overhead  driving.  All  of 
these  various  forms  are  in  successful  use,  but  the  various 
underneath  drives  are  the  most  popular.  These  are  all  self- 
contained,  all  the  various  shaft  supports  being  provided 
for  in  the  design  of  the  heaters,  while  the  overhead  drives 
require  supplementary  supports,  independent  of  the  heaters. 
The  particular  form  to  be  used  in  any  given  case  must  de- 
pend upon  the  conditions,  and  upon  personal  preference. 

The  speed  of  the  stirrer  shafts  should  be  about  35  revo- 
lutions per  minute.  The  bevel  gearing  is  usually  arranged 
so  that  the  horizontal  driving  shaft  runs  three  times  as  fast. 
Thus  the  shaft  to  which  the  belt  is  applied  should  run  about 
105  revolutions. 

Former. 

When  the  meats  have  been  cooked,  it  is  necessary  to  form 
them  into  cakes  which  may  be  put  into  the  hydraulic  press. 
The  machine  for  making  these  cakes  is  called  the  former. 

Figure  96  shows  a  direct-acting  steam  former,  with 
steam  carriage. 

The  carriage  brings  a  measured  quantity  of  cooked 
meats  from  the  heater  and  deposits  them  on  a  press  cloth 
spread  in  the  gap    shown.       Steam  is  admitted  under  the- 


$02  MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES. 

ram,  and  forces  it  up,  thus  pressing  the  cake  against  the 
upper  frame.  Steam  is  discharged,  and  the  ram  drops 
back  into  position  shown.  The  two  ends  of  the  press  cloth 
are  folded  over  cake.  Cake  is  removed  on  a  sheet  iron  pan, 
and  inserted  in  the  press.  The  method  of  removing  the 
cakes  is  shown  in  Figure  97.  The  various  ways  in  which 
the  former  is  arranged  for  receiving  the  meats  from  the 
heaters  are  shown  in  Figures  go  to  94. 

Formers  are  sometimes  made  without  the  steam  carriage 
attachment,  in  which  case  the  operative  pulls  out  by  hand 
the  carriage,  which  delivers  the  measured  quantity  of 
meats  from  the  heater.  The  former  shown  in  Figure  94 
has  hand  carriage. 

Sometimes  the  former  ram  is  operated  by  compressed 
air,  instead  of  steam.  This  has  the  advantage  of  being 
cooler  and  more  agreeable  to  the  operatives,  and  it  avoids 
the  unpleasant  caking  and  cooking  of  the  scattered  particles 
of  meats,  which  chance  to  spill  out  and  fall  on  the  cylinders. 

Sometimes  the  former  is  operated  from  a  hydraulic  pump 
and  accumulator. 

Sometimes,  though  rarely,  the  former  is  operated  by 
belt  power.  This  is  called  a  power  former.  This  has  gone 
out  of  use,  except  for  the  smallest  mills. 

The  direct  acting  steam  former,  first  discussed,  is  the 
most  in  favor,  though  the  plan  of  operation  by  compressed 
air,  which  is  now  new,  may  come  into  general  use. 

Press. 

When  the  cakes  have  been  formed,  they  are  lifted  on  a 
steel  pan  and  inserted  by  hand  into  the  compartments  or 
"boxes"  of  a  hydraulic  press,  and  subjected  to  a  pressure 
of  about  350  tons,  for  ten  to  twenty  minutes.  The  time 
allowed  for  a  press  to  stand  under  pressure  and  drip,  de- 
pends upon  the  relative  balance  between  the  capacities  of 
the  heaters  and  the  presses.  The  heater  capacity  is  usually 
so  proportioned  that,  when  cooking  four  charges  per  hour, 
the  rated    capacity  of    the  mill  may  be  attained;    the  press 


Fig.  99.     Oil  Press,  Showing  Valves. 


MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES.  3II 

capacity  is  arranged  so  that  by  making  four  pressings  per 
hour,  they  will  keep  up  with  the  heaters. 

The  yield  of  oil  is  to  some  extent  increased  the  longer  a 
press  is  allowed  to  stand  under  pressure ;  but  if  this  is  done  to 
the  extent  of  making  the  heaters  wait,  the  capacity  of  the 
mill  will  be  proportionately  decreased. 

Some  mills  install  an  excess  of  presses,  so  that  they  may 
be  allowed  extra  time  to  drain.  But  careful  judgment  must 
be  exercised,  not  to  increase  the  cost  of  the  mill  to  a  point 
where  the  interest  on  the  extra  investment  will  not  be  repaid 
by  the  increase  in  yield  of  oil. 

It  will  now  be  seen  that  the  rapidity  of  the  cooking  and 
the  pressing  determines  the  capacity  of  the  mill,  and  that 
this  capacity  will  thus  vary  with  character  of  the  seed 
worked.  One  (15  box)  pressing  represents  a  capacity  of 
about  J  ton  of  seed,  hence  at  four  pressings  per  hour,  each 
press  will  have  a  capacity  of  24  tons  of  seed  per  day  of  24 
hours;  at  3^  per  hour,  21  tons;  and  at  3  per  hour,  18  tons. 

Figure  99  is  a  side  view  of  the  press,  showing  the  valves 
by  which  it  is  controlled. 

The  hydraulic  ram  which  applies  the  pressure  is  usually 
16  inches  diameter.  The  pressure  applied  to  the  ram  by  the 
hydraulic  pump  is  about  3,500  pounds  per  square  inch. 
This  makes  a  total  pressure  of  700,000  pounds  ap- 
plied to  the  cakes.  As  the  cakes  are  about  14  by  ^2 
inches,  or  448  square  inches  area,  the  pressure  per  square 
inch  on  the  cakes  is  about  1,600  pounds. 

Hydraulic   Packing 

It  is  necessary  to  have  a  special  packing  to  make  the  joint 
between  the  ram  and  the  cylinder.  Figure  101  shows  the 
cylinder  in  section.  The  packing  is  shown  at  A.  It  con- 
sists of  a  crimp  made  of  sole  leather,  formed  in  a  mould 
made  for  the  purpose.  Figure  102  shows  one  kind  of  crim  ) 
mould.  The  leather  used  should  lie  hard  and  sound.  It  is 
better  to  have  it  planed  to  a  uniform  thickness.  It  is  put 
into    the    mould    when    thoroughly    wet,    and    kept    until 


Fig.   ico.     Oil  Press  in  Section. 


-DETAIL    Or 
HYDRAULIC. 
PACKING-^. 


Fig.  toi.     Oil  Press,  Showing  Hydraulic  Packing. 


314  MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES. 

entirely  dry  and  hard.  It  is  then  taken  out  and  the  centre 
cut  out,  leaving  a  ring  of  the  shape  shown  in  Figure  101. 
It  is  carefully  trimmed  to  the  correct  size  and  wedged  into 
the  recess  with  blocks  of  hard  wood,  such  as  walnut  or 
maple.  Care  must  be  taken  to  so  mould  the  leather  that  the 
hair  or  grain  side  of  the  leather  will  come  next  to  the  ram, 
where  the  wear  comes.  A  good  packing  should  last  several 
months ;  but  sometimes,  on  account  of  unseen  defects  in  the 
leather,  it  may  fail  in  a  single  day.  A  mill  should  always 
keep  on  hand  one  cr  more  packings,  ready  for  emergencies. 
The  blocks  for  wedging  in  the  packing  should  be  care- 
fully formed  to  exactly  fill  the  space  in  the  leather  cup  and 
hold  it  firmly  in  place.  A  gcod  way  to  make  the  blocks  is 
to  build  up  a  wood  cylinder  of  straight  staves,  after  the 
fashion  of  a  barrel,  12  cr  15  inches  long.  The  staves  are 
glued  together  and  fastened  endwise  to  the  face  plate  of  a 
lathe  and  turned  inside  and  outside  to  the  proper  diameter. 
The  end  of  cylinder  is  turned  to  the  proper  shape  and  a  ring 
of  the  blocks  cut  cff.  These  are  then  split  apart,  and  are 
ready  for  use.  Several  sets  may  thus  be  made  and  cut  off 
and  kept  for  future  use. 

Hydraulic   Pump. 

The  pressure  is  applied  to  the  presses  by  means  of  a 
hydraulic  pump.  Figure  103  shows  the  most  common 
form.  It  is  actuated  by  a  steam  cylinder,  shown  on  the 
left.  The  spiral  spring  seen  in  the  centre,  serves  to  regulate 
the  pressure,  and  the  spiral  spring  at  the  right  is  the  safety 
valve. 

This  pump  is  usually  about  8x1x10  (steam  cylinder  8 
inches  diameter,  hydraulic  plunger  1  inch  diameter,  with  10 
inches  stroke).  Thus  it  multiplies  the  steam  pressure  64 
times,  so  that  with  50  to  60  pounds  steam  prissure,  on  the 
pump,  the  hydraulic  pressure  is  3,200  to  3,840  pounds  per 
square  inch.  The  ratio  between  the  two  diameters  is  a  very 
important  matter;  if  it  is  too  small  there  will  not  be  suffi- 
cient pressure  on  the  presses;  if  too  large,  by  some  accident 


(fc 


m 


o 


® 


o 


Fig.  102.      Mold  for  Making  Hydraulic  Packing. 


MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES.  317 

to  the  regulator,  the  pressure  might  become  great  enough  to 
break  the  press. 

The  fluid  used  by  the  hydraulic  pump  may  be  water,  but 
the  universal  practice  in  oil  mills  is  to  use  cotton  seed  oil.  A 
small  tank  of  oil  is  placed  near  the  pump,  from  which  it 
takes  the  suction.  When  the  press  runs  down,  the 
hydraulic  oil  is  expelled  from  the  pipes  and  discharged  into 
this  tank,  where  it  is  used  over  and  over.  It  is  important 
that  this  oil  be  clean  and  free  from  grit  and  all  sediment, 
otherwise  it  will  clog  or  cut  the  valves. 

When  crude  oil  is  used  for  this  purpose,  the  continued 
pressings  seem  to  thicken  it,  so  that  the  tanks  must  occa- 
sionally be  cleaned  out.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  connect  the 
hydraulic  pump  suction  so  that  it  will  take  oil  about  six 
inches  above  the  bottom  of  the  supply  tank,  so  that  the 
settlings  are  not  so  apt  to  get  into  the  system.  Where 
possible,  it  is  the  best  plan  to  use  refined  oil  for  the  purpose. 
This  is  not  usually  practicable  in  mills  that  do  not  refine 
their  own  oil,  for  the  reason  that  on  account  of  the  various 
leakages,  the  tank  must  be  frequently  replenished.  The 
system  is  so  arranged  that  the  leakages  go  in  with  the  oil 
that  is  being  produced,  so  that  there  is  no  final  less,  except 
such  loss  as  there  is  in  refining. 

When  there  are  more  than  two  presses,  another  pump  is 
sometimes  installed,  for  the  purpose  of  taking  up  the  slack 
in  the  presses,  and  putting  up  the  pressure  to  about  300 
pounds  per  square  inch,  at  which  point  the  high  pressure 
pump  is  switched  on,  either  automatically  or  by  hand. 
The  low  pressure  pump  is  about  10x2^x10. 

There  are  several  forms  of  hydraulic  pumps  that  are 
driven  by  belts  instead  of  direct  steam,  as  above  described. 
They  require  less  power,  but  are  not  so  convenient  to  oper- 
ate as  the  steam  pumps.  Nearly  all  modern  oil  mills  use 
steam  pumps. 


318  MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES. 

Accumulator. 

When  there  are  four  or  more  presses,  an  accumulator  is 
sometimes  used  for  the  purpose  of  giving  out  quick  pres- 
sure, and  for  equalizing  the  work  on  the  pumps,  allowing 
them  to  run  practically  all  the  time,  whether  presses  are 
going  up  or  not.  There  are  two  kinds  of  accumulators, 
"pneumatic"  and  "dead  weight."  The  pneumatic  accu- 
mulator consists  of  a  heavy  piece  of  pipe  about  12  inches 
in  diameter  and  6  feet  high,  so  arranged  that  the  pump 
will  force  oil  into  it  and  compress  the  air  in  its  upper  part, 
while  the  presses  are  not  going  up ;  when  presses  are  ready, 
the  compressed  air  will  supply  the  pressure  quickly  and 
easily.  The  dead  weight  accumulator  ( two  of  which  are 
shown  in  Fig.  104),  consists  of  a  weighted  hydraulic 
plunger,  which  stores  the  pressure  while  presses  are  not 
needing  it,  and  gives  it  out  when  required. 

Accumulators  are  mostly  in  use  in  connection  with  the 
low  pressure  pump,  (capable  of  making  about  300  pounds 
per  square  inch)  ;  but  they  are  also  used  in  connection  with 
the  high  pressure  system,  (3,000  to  4,000  pounds  per 
square  inch),  where  there  are  six  or  more  presses.  Fig.  104 
shows  a  dead  weight  high  pressure  and  low  pressure  accu- 
mulator, set  up  in  the  same  frame.  The  high  and  low 
pressure  pumps,  used  in  connection  with  them  are  also 
shown.  The  low  pressure  accumulator  is  sometimes  used 
to  operate  the  "former,"  instead  of  direct  steam  pressure, 
but  this  is  not  the  usual  practice. 

With  a  modern  system  of  pumps  and  piping,  the  accu- 
mulator is  of  no  practical  use.  It  was  originally  designed 
to  put  the  presses  up  quick.  With  a  free  opening,  it  does 
it  too  quickly,  giving  the  material  in  the  press  a  hydraulic 
blow,  destroying  the  press  cloth.  To  prevent  this,  a  choke- 
valve  was  inserted  in  the  pressure  pipe.  It  is  plain  that 
there  is  no  use  to  force  reserve  oil  under  pressure  into  an 
accumulator,  and  then  choke  down  the  flow  to  a  rate  less 
than  the  capacity  of  the  pump. 


Fig.  104.     Hydraulic  Accumulators. 


Fig.  105.      Hydraulic  Press  Valves. 


MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES.  325 

Press  Valves. 

The  oil,  under  pressure  from  the  hydraulic  pumps  or 
accumulators,  is  admitted  to  the  press  cylinder,  and  again 
discharged  therefrom,  when  required,  through  a  valve, 
generally  known  as  the  "change  valve."  Fig.  105  shows 
two  forms  of  these  valves.  When  pressure  is  to  be  applied 
to  press,  valve  J  is  opened  and  K  closed;  when  press  is  to 
be  let  down,  valve  J  is  closed,  and  K  opened. 

Formerly  oil  mills  used  power  pumps  with  two  different 
size  plungers.  See  Fig.  109.  One  set  of  plungers  put  up 
400  pounds  pressure  and  the  others  3,000  pounds  pressure. 
The  discharges  were  connected  together  to  a  pipe  leading 
to  a  press.  The  low  pressure  was  to  put  the  ram  up  quick. 
Both  plungers  pumped  into  the  same  pipe.  When  the 
pressure  reached  the  maximum  of  the  low  pressure  plunger, 
a  check  valve  between  the  two  discharges  was  forced  shut 
and  the  low  pressure  plunger  discharged  its  oil  out  of  a 
low  pressure  safety  valve.  When  the  high  pressure  (3,000 
pounds)  was  reached,  these  plungers  discharged  oil  back 
into  the  tank  through  high  pressure  safety  valves. 

On  these  power  pumps,  there  were  two  low  pressure 
plungers  used  for  four  presses,  and  four  high  pressure 
plungers — one  for  each  press. 

When  direct  acting  steam  pumps  were  introduced,  one 
pressure  only  (3,000  pounds)  was  provided  for.  It  was 
thought  the  steam  pump  could  be  regulated  in  speed  and 
pressure  to  fill  all  requirements. 

Afterwards  it  was  thought  best  to  have  a  low  pressure 
pump  in  order  to  work  the  presses  faster. 

Automatic  Change  Valve. 

In  connection  with  this  system  of  high  and  low  pressures, 
with  or  without  the  accumulators,  there  was  devised  a  sys- 
tem of  automatic  change  valves  to  admit  to  the  press  the 
low  pressure  and  automatically  change  over  to  the  high 
pressure. 


326  MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES. 

Sometimes  the  automatic  valves  were  left  out,  and  the 
changes  made  with  the  regular  press  valve,  by  a  man  watch- 
ing the  guage. 

Fig.  106  shows  an  automatic  change  valve  in  section,  con- 
nected by  piping  to  a  regular  press  valve  shown  above. 
The  connecting  pipe  is  shown  broken  to  indicate  that  the 
automatic  valve  may  be  placed  in  any  desired  position 
with  reference  to  the  press  valve. 

Low  pressure  pump  is  connected  to  the  press  valve  at 
A.  High  pressure  pump  is  connected  to  the  automatic 
valve  at  G. 

To  put  pressure  on  press,  close  K,  open  J. 

Pressure  is  admitted  from  low  pressure  pump  through  A 
and  adjacent  check  valve,  through  B  and  onward. 

At  300  pounds  pressure,  plunger  D  is  pressed  down 
strongly  enough  to  open  E. 

This  admits  high  pressure  through  E,  F,  H,  and  onward. 

High  pressure  shuts  low  pressure  check  valve  and  holds 
D  down. 

At  H  is  a  choke  valve  to  admit  the  high  pressure  very 
gradually.  This  is  to  save  press  cloth  and  give  the  oil  time 
to  flow  out  of  the  meats  in  the  press. 

Valves  similar  to  this  are  still  in  use,  but  some  late  valves 
are  verv  much  simplified  in  design. 


1 s i, I       7r>  72m 


K 


Fig.  106.     Old  Style  Automatic  Change  Valve. 


328  MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES. 

Improved  Automatic  Change  Valve,  Fig.  107 — Lettering. 

Fig.  107  shows  a  cross  section  of  an  improved  change 
valve,  having  fewer  parts  than  any  of  the  old  forms.  Both 
high  and  low  pressure  pumps  are  connected  to  this  valve. 

A. — Pipe  from  low  pressure  pump. 

B. — Check  over  same. 

C. — Port  to  press  pipe. 

D. — Pipe  to  press. 

E. — Pipe  from  high  pressure  pump. 

F. — Choke  valve. 

G. — Stop  valve,  high  pressure. 

H. — Stop  valve,  low  pressure. 

J. — Crimp  packing. 

K. — Leather  gasket. 

When  valve  at  press  is  first  opened,  low  pressure  rlows 
through  pipe  A  and  check  B,  to  press. 

At  the  same  time,  the  high  pressure  pump  Jcrces  <  ii 
through  the  slot  in  choke  valve  F.  (This  slot  is  a  mere 
notch  filed  across  face  of  valve.) 

As  oil  passes  through  this  choke  valve  its  pressure  be- 
comes as  low  as  the  pressure  from  low  pressure  pump. 
Thus  both  pumps  contribute  to  hasten  the  ram,  and  when 
the  slack  of  the  press  is  taken  up,  the  high  pressure  pump, 
continuing  to  put  oil  through  the  choke  valve  F,  gradually 
raises  the  pressure  to  above  that  of  the  low  pressure  pump. 
Then  the  check  B  closes,  and  the  pressure  continues  to  rise 
by  the  action  of  the  high  pressure  pump  alone.  The  choke 
valve  makes  this  rise  of  pressure  very  gradual,  and  it  is  this 
regulation  of  the  rise  which  saves  the  press  cloth  and 
makes  a  greater  yield  of  oil  from  the  presses. 


< 

m 


k 


o 


330  MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES. 

Fig.  1 08  shows  a  high  and  low  pressure  pump,  piped  up 
to  three  presses.     More  presses  could  be  added  if  desired. 

A. — Low  pressure  pump. 

B. — High  pressure  pump. 

C. — Automatic  change  valve. 

D. — Side  view  of  automatic  change  valve. 

E.  H. — Press  change  valves. 

F. — Pipe  to  press. 

G. — Presses. 

K. — Discharge  pipe  to  tank. 

The  automatic  change  valve  C  (see  Fig.  107),  is  put 
near  pumps.  By  this  plan,  only  one  line  of  pipes  is  re- 
quired, to  go  from  the  automatic  change  valve  to  as  many 
presses  as  one  set  of  pumps  will  supply. 

Old  Style  Press. 

The  foregoing  system  of  pressing  is  of  recent  origin,  hav- 
ing been  first  introduced  in  1882.  Previous  to  that  time, 
and  for  several  years  thereafter,  the  cooked  meats  were  put 
by  hand  into  small  bags,  and  folded  up  into  hair  mats,  and 
put  into  the  press  boxes.  This  hair  mat  resembled  a  large, 
long  book,  opening  at  one  end.  This  mat,  with  the  bag  of 
meats  folded  within,  was  about  5  inches  thick,  so  that  the 
press  boxes  had  to  be  about  6  inches  deep.  Thus,  a  press 
could  only  hold  five  or  six  boxes,  to  keep  the  top  box  within 
reach  of  a  man  standing  on  the  floor.  The  capacity  of 
these  presses  was  about  one  ton  per  box  per  day.  The 
pressure  required  to  press  five  or  six  cakes  is  as  much  as  for 
twelve  or  fifteen,  so  that  a  mill  had  to  provide  much  more 
machinery  to  get  a  given  capacity  than  by  the  present 
system. 

The  former  was  invented  to  make  a  preliminary  pressing 
of  the  cooked  meats,  so  they  would  not  occupy  so  much 
room  in  the  press.  The  cake  delivered  by  the  former  is 
only  about  i-|  inches  thick.  These  are  wrapped  in  cloth, 
put  directly  into  the  press  boxes,  without  the  use  of  any 


332  MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES. 

mats,  so  that  by  this  system  about  fifteen  boxes  may  be 
arranged  in  a  press  of  the  same  height  as  the  old  one.  The 
old  system  was  rapidly  abandoned,  so  that  by  1890,  not  5 
per  cent,  of  the  mills  were  using  it.  At  the  present  time, 
there  are  a  very  few  mills  operating  under  the  old  system. 

Press  Cloth. 

A  large  item  of  expense  in  the  operation  of  an  oil  mill  is 
the  camels'  hair  press  cloth.  This  expense  may  easily  be 
made  three  or  four  times  as  great  as  it  should  be,  if  all  the 
conditions  are  not  just  right.  Proper  cooking  of  the  meats 
is  the  first  consideration  for  the  preservation  of  press  cloth, 
(as  well  as  for  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  <  il). 

If  the  moisture  and  sap  is  not  sufficiently  cooked  cut  of 
the  meats,  the  press  cloth  will  be  badly  broken.  The 
speed  of  the  presses  is  another  factor.  There  is  no  objec- 
tion to  the  rapid  working  of  the  press  up  to  the  point  of 
about  500  pounds  pressure  per  square  inch  on  the  ram, 
which  is  about  the  point  when  oil  begins  to  flow  freely. 
When  the  pressure  passes  this  point,  the  increase  of  pres- 
sure and  the  movement  of  presses  must  be  slow  enough  to 
let  the  oil  escape  through  the  press  cloth  without  ruptur- 
ing it. 

When  high  pressure  (3,500  pounds),  alone  is  used,  great 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  put  the  pressure  on  too  rapidly. 
The  limit  as  to  maximum  pressure  is  controlled  by  an 
automatic  regulating  valve  on  the  pump,  and  to  prevent 
putting  the  high  pressure  on  too  quickly  the  steam  throttle 
in  the  supply  pipe  is  so  arranged  as  to  admit  steam  very 
gradually  behind  the  piston. 

This  works  fairly  well  with  one  to  two  presses,  and  if 
carefully  looked  after.  For  more  than  two  presses,  it  is 
important  to  have  two  pressure  pumps,  one  high  pressure 
(3,500  pounds),  and  one  low  pressure  (300  pounds),  con- 
nected with  each  of  the  presses,  through  an  additional 
change  valve,  as  previously  described. 

It  is  not  impossible  to  carry  to  excess  the  effort  to  save 


MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES.  335 

press  cloth  (without  regard  to  other  matters).  For  ex- 
ample, the  heaters  or  presses  might  be  run  on  so  slow  a 
schedule,  in  the  effort  to  save  press  cloth,  that  the  loss  of 
capacity  of  the  mill  would  more  than  overbalance  the  sav- 
ing. Judgment  must  be  used  in  rinding  the  proper  balance 
between  straining  the  capacity  of  the  mill,  at  the  expense 
of  the  press  cloth,  and  keeping  down  the  capacity  for  the 
purpose  of  saving  it. 

When  the  pressure  is  released  on  the  presses  and  they 
run  down,  the  cakes  remaining  in  the  boxes  are  loosened 
up  by  a  man  behind  the  press  with  a  short  flat  bar.  The 
man  in  front  takes  out  the  cakes  and  piles  them  on  the  strip- 
ping table  where  another  man  strips  off  the  press  cloths 
and  passes  them  back  to  be  used  again.  If  the  meats  have 
been  sufficiently  cooked,  the  cloths  strip  easily,  and  without 
damage.  One  cloth  weighs  about  three  pounds,  and  costs 
about  $1.50.  With  good  usage,  it  should  stand  600  to 
700  pressings.  The  cost  per  ton  of  seed  is  12  to  20  cents. 
Press  cloths  are  mended  on  a  stout  sewing  machine  de- 
signed for  the  purpose. 

Disposition  of  Oil. 

As  the  oil  flows  from  the  presses  it  is  caught  in  a  shallow 
trough  behind.  This  trough  also  incidentally  catches  a  lot 
of  meats  and  broken  cake  that  fall  around  the  presses.  In 
order  to  entrap  these  in  the  trough  and  allow  only  the  clear 
oil  to  run  off,  the  oil  outlet  enters  the  trough  near  the  too. 
The  oil  runs  off  into  a  tank  under  the  floor.  Sometimes 
there  is  still  another  tank  under  the  floor,  into  which  the 
oil  from  the  first  tank  runs  out  from  a  pipe  near  the  top  with 
the  idea  of  leaving  the  sediment  in  the  first  tank.  The 
oil  is  pumped  out  of  the  second  tank  to  the  storage  tanks, 
located  wherever  convenient  on  the  premises.  All  the  above 
precautions  still  do  not  entirely  free  the  oil  from  sediment,  so 
that  there  will  be  much  sediment  found  in  the  storage  tanks. 
This  sediment  contains  some  water,  and  in  warm  weather, 
it  will  tend  to  sour  and  damage  the  oil.      Hence  it  is  not  a 


336  MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES. 

good  plan  to  allow  crude  oil  to  stand  long,  in  summer,  un- 
less it  is  pumped  off  into  clean  tanks,  after  standing  awhile. 

If  tanks  are  cleaned  out  often,  before  the  settlings  sour, 
the  settlings  may  be  mixed  with  the  cooked  meats  and 
pressed  again,  so  that  if  carefully  attended  to,  there  need  not 
be  much  waste  from  settlings. 

Filtering  crude  oil  through  a  special  filter  press  is  com- 
ing into  limited  use.  This  makes  a  nice,  clear  oil,  which 
is  somewhat  more  salable  than  unfiltered  oil.  But  the  pro- 
cess is  a  difficult  one;  the  filter  becomes  so  quickly  clogged. 
Some  form  of  gravity  filter  is  the  easiest  to  operate.  Such 
a  filter  may  be  easily  made  by  loosely  filling  a  tank  with 
straw,  over  a  false  perforated  bottom.  Where  the  oil  mill 
has  a  refinery,  the  question  of  filtering  is  not  of  so  much 
importance,  because  the  sediment  is  precipitated  in  any 
case,  when  being  refined. 

Cake  Cracker. 

When  the  cakes  leave  the  presses,  they  weigh  twelve  to 
fourteen  pounds.  They  are  stacked  up  to  air-dry,  for 
twelve  to  twenty-four  hours.  Sometimes  the  cakes  are  put 
in  racks  to  dry.  They  are  then  put  by  hand  into  the  cake 
cracker,  which  grinds  them  into  pieces  about  the  size  of  a 
grain  of  corn,  so  that  they  may  be  fed  to  a  mill  for  still  finer 
grinding.  This  machine  must  be  very  strong  and  durable 
to  crack  the  very  hard  cakes.  Fig.  1 10  shows  one  very  good 
form  of  cake  cracker.  The  crusher  rolls  are  revolved  in 
different  directions,  at  a  speed  of  about  300  revolutions. 
This  machine  will  handle  about  one  ton  of  cakes  per  hour, 
and  will  thus  be  sufficient  for  an  oil  mill  of  70  to  75  tons 
(of  seed)  per  day. 

Heal  Mill. 

The  cracked  cake  is  taken  to  the  mill  for  fine  grinding. 
This  may  be  an  ordinary  corn  or  wheat  mill,  but  is  prefer- 
ably a  mill  with  chilled  iron  plates.  Fig.  1 1 1  shows  one 
form  of  iron  plate  mill,   known    as    an    "attrition    mill." 


MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES.  34* 

The  plates  revolve  in  opposite  directions  at  a  speed  of  about 
1,500  revolutions  per  minute.  The  engraving  shows  the 
outer  casing  removed  for  the  purpose  of  changing  the  grind- 
ing plates. 

These  mills  are  made  in  various  sizes,  from  plates  20 
inches  to  36  inches  in  diameter.  The  capacity  ranges  res- 
pectively from  one  to  four  tons  of  meal  per  hour,  being 
suitable  for  oil  mills  of  30  to  100  tons  (of  seed)  per  day. 
Most  mills  arrange  to  grind  in  12  hours  all  the  cake  that  is 
produced  in  24  hours.  The  above  rating  is  based  on  this 
practice. 

The  broken  cake  is  fed  to  the  mill  at  the  top,  and  the  fine 
meal  is  delivered  under  the  bottom  in  the  centre. 

It  is  possible  to  grind  fine  marketable  meal  with  these 
mills,  if  they  are  not  crowded  too  near  their  ultimate  ca- 
pacity. The  domestic  demand  for  meal  is  not  so  critical  about 
fineness  as  the  export  trade.  It  is  usual  in  grinding  meal 
for  export  trade  by  whatever  process,  to  pass  it  through 
screens  or  bolting  chests,  to  reduce  it  to  a  uniform  grade, 
and  free  it  from  hulls  and  lint. 

The  attrition  mill  does  its  work  largely  by  making  the  par- 
ticles of  cake  grind  each  other.  Therefore  it  is  important 
that  the  mill  have  enough  feed  as  well  as  not  too  much. 
An  attrition  mill,  when  underfed,  will  do  its  wrrk  as  poorly 
as  when  overfed. 

Some  mills  have  their  screening  machinery  so  arranged 
that  the  material  from  the  cake  cracker  is  first  screened  for 
the  recovery  of  such  fine  meal  as  may  be  possible,  before 
carrying  it  to  the  grinding  mill.  This  is  an  economical 
process,  as  it  relieves  the  mill  of  some  duty.  The  large  lumps 
of  cake  thrown  into  the  revolving  screen  have  a  tendency 
to  break  the  perforated  metal  or  wire  cloth,  and  on  account 
of  the  additional  repairs  thus  entailed,  the  process  has  not 
become  popular.  The  screens  should  be  covered  with  per- 
forations about  1 -1 6  to  1-20  inch  diameter.  The  screening 
is,  however,  generally  all  done  after  the  grinding.  In  some 
cases,  mills  grinding  for  a  very  critical  market  have  screened 


342  MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES. 

as  fine  as  1-32  inch.  The  finer  the  screening,  the  more  ex- 
pensive the  process,  the  more  power  and  the  more  grinding 
mills  required,  because  the  coarse  particles  which  will 
not  pass  through  the  perforations,  have  to  be  reground 
again  and  again  until  they  will  pass  through. 

For  the  domestic  trade,  some  mills  screen  meal  through 
3-32  perforations,  mostly  for  removing  lint  cotton  which 
has  escaped  the  linters,  and  which  is  attached  to  the  par- 
ticles of  hull,  still  to  be  found  in  the  meal.  The  finer  the 
grinding  the  more  digestible  the  meal  is  for  stock  food. 
The  Germans  lay  great  stress  on  this  point. 

Most  oil  mills  sack  and  weigh  the  meal  by  hand;  but 
lately  some  of  the  larger  mills  are  installing  weighing  ma- 
chines, with  great  success. 

It  is  usual  to  install  the  cake-grinding  machinery  in  the 
oil  mill  building,  and  to  carry  the  meal  to  the  meal  storage 
house  with  a  conveyor,  and  there  sack  and  store  it. 

A  mill  should  have  its  meal  storage  separate  from  the 
seed  storage;  otherwise  if  seed  are  stored  where  meal  has 
been,  the  lint  on  the  seed  becomes  discolored  by  the  yellow 
meal,  and  deteriorated  in  value. 


MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES. 


343 


TABLE  XV. 

SHOWING  AVERAGE  SPEEDS,  CAPACITIES  AND 
POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  VARIOUS  MACHINES 
IN  A  COTTON  SEED  OIL  MILL. 


MACHINE 

Sand   and   Boll   Screen 

Linter    

Linter    

Huller 

Huller 

Separating   Screen  .    . 

Rolls 

Rolls 

Heater 

Heater 

Cake  Cracker  .... 
Cake  Cracker  .... 

Meal  Mill 

Meal  Mill 

Hull    Press   ... 


Speed 


20 
350 
350 
900 
900 

20 
180 
180 
I05 
I05 


300 

300 

1800 

I200 

400 


Capacity  in  Tons 
Seed  in  24  Hours 


40 

5 

10 

40 
100 

40 

40 
100 

40 

100 

Capacity  in  Tons  Pro 
duct  in  12  Hours 

25 
65 
25 
65 
40 


Horse 
Power 


3 
4 

3 
10 

25 

3 

10 

3° 

8 

20 


5 

12 

25 
50 

5 


For  shafting,  add  20  per  cent,  to  power. 

For  conveyors  and  elevators,  add  10  per  cent,  to  power. 


In  some  cases  in  the  foregoing  table,  the  machines  are 
given  two  ratings  in  capacity  and  power.  In  the  case  of 
the  linters  and  hullers,  the  variations  may  be  made  by  vary- 
ing the  amount  of  material  fed;  in  the  case  of  the  other 
machines,  the  variations  are  due  to  using  different  size 
machines  for  different  capacities  desired. 

The  capacities  and  corresponding  power  required,  may  be 


344  MECHANICAL    FEATURES    AND    PROCESSES. 

widely  varied  according  to  the  way  in  which  the  machinery 
is  forced,  and  according  to  the  general  skill  in  operating 
the  mill  as  a  whole. 

The  usual  allowance  of  power  for  various  size  oil  mills 
is  2^  horse  power  per  ton  (of  seed)  capacity  per  day  of  24 
hours. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


Cotton  Seefc  ©tl  IReftnina. 

Crude  cotton  oil,  in  common  with  most  crude  vegetable 
oils,  is  an  intricate  mixture  of  chemical  compounds,  con- 
taining more  or  less  impurities  in  mechanical  suspension  or 
solution.  The  chemical  compounds  are  made  up  of  nearly 
neutral  bodies  formed  by  the  combination  of  certain  acids 
with  certain  other  bodies  having  an  affinity  for  the  acids. 
The  completeness  of  the  chemical  combination  between  these 
two  classes  of  bodies  constitute  the  principal  element  in  the 
value  of  the  oil.  The  chemical  reactions  in  oils  are  so  intri- 
cate that  the  easiest  understanding  of  them  may  be  obtained 
by  analogy  with  more  simple  compounds,  such  as  are  f  ;imed 
among  inorganic  substances.  For  example,  sulphate  of 
zinc  is  formed  by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  upon  zinc. 
If  sufficient  zinc  is  supplied  for  the  quantity  of  acid  present, 
there  will  result  a  perfectly  neutral  compound,  which  will 
show  no  acid  reaction  whatever;  if,  however,  the  amount  of 
zinc  is  deficient,  the  compound  will  contain  "free  acid," 
that  is,  acid  which  has  not  found  anything  with  which  to 
combine.  It  remains  there  ready  to  combine  with  anything 
for  which  it  has  an  affinity,  such  as  an  alkali  or  a  metal. 
If  it  is  desired  that  the  above  compound  shall  be  perfectly 
pure  or  neutral,  the  free  acid  must  in  some  way  he  eliminated. 
If  zinc  is  available  the  most  obvious  and  economical  way 
would  be  to  add  just  enough  zinc  to  neutralize  the  free  acid, 
so  that  the  compound  would  all  be  pure  sulphate  of  zinc. 
But  if  zinc  cannot  be  obtained,  some  other  metal  or  alkali 
may  be  used  to  neutralize  the  free  acid,  provided  such  a  sub- 
stitute will  produce  a  sulphate  which  can  be  separated  by  pre- 
cipitation, or  otherwise,  from  the  sulphate  of  zinc  desired. 

Cotton  oil  is  roughly  analogous  to  sulphate  of  zinc,  sul- 
phuric acid  being  represented  by  a  mixture  of  oleic,  stearic 
and  palmitic  acids,  and  the  metal  by  a  vegetable  substance 


34^  COTTON    SEED    OIL    REFINING. 

called  glycerol.  The  above  mentioned  acids  belong  to  a 
series  known  as  "fatty  acids."  Upon  the  complete  balancing 
of  the  fatty  acids  with  the  glycerol,  depends  the  neutrality, 
and  generally  speaking,  the  commercial  value  of  the  oil. 
Fresh  crude  oil,  made  from  sound  seed,  will  contain  fatty 
acids  in  excess  of  the  neutral  requirement  to  the  extent  of 
|  to  i  per  cent,  of  the  total  weight.  The  chemical  affinity 
between  elements  in  cotton  oil  is  very  much  weaker  than  in 
inorganic  substances,  and  as  crude  oil  grows  older,  more 
and  more  acid  becomes  dis-associated  or  "free."  Likewise, 
when  seed  become  heated,  more  acid  in  the  contained  oil  be- 
comes free.  This  setting  free  of  fatty  acids  is  one  of  the 
causes  producing  what  is  known  as  rancidity  in  oils. 

Cotton  oil  is  frequently  alluded  to  as  containing  i  to  2 
per  cent,  of  fatty  acid,  when  "free"  fatty  acid  is  meant,  the 
entire  amount  of  combined  fatty  acids  in  any  cotton  oil 
being  about  70  per  cent.  The  total  contents  of  fatty  acids  in 
oil  may  be  determined  by  completely  saponifying  the  oil  and 
treating  the  soap  with  weak  sulphuric  acid.  Sulphuric  acid 
has  a  greater  affinity  for  glycerol  than  the  fatty  acids,  and  it 
displaces  them  and  sets  them  all  free,  so  they  can  be  separated 
and  weighed.  Fatty  acids  do  not  present  any  of  the  ordi- 
nary features  popularly  ascribed  to  acids.  Most  of  them 
are  at  ordinary  temperatures  solid,  and  they  are  not  sour  to 
the  taste,  and  they  do  not  indicate  with  litmus  paper,  as  do 
inorganic  acids.  In  chemical  tests  for  fatty  acids,  the 
indicator  used  is  phenolphthalein,  a  yellow  powder  dissolved 
in  alcohol.  To  determine  the  amount  of  free  fatty  acid  in 
any  given  oil,  measure  a  certain  quantity  of  oil,  add  a  few 
drops  of  the  indicator  and  slowly  add  measured  quantities 
of  an  alkali  of  known  strength,  violently  shaking  after  each 
addition,  until  the  indicator  turns  the  whole  solution  a  light 
pink.  This  shows  that  the  acids  have  just  been  neutralized, 
and  the  percentage  may  be  calculated  from  the  amount  of 
alkali  used.  These  fatty  acids  have  been  mentioned  in  con- 
junction because  they  are  chemically  quite  similar,  and  all 
the  reactions  are  about  the  same.     The  quantities  are  usually 


•>• 


V 


■v 


COTTON    SEED    OIL    REFINING.  349 

chemically  computed  as  so  much  oleic  acid.  Some  of  their 
physical  characteristics  are  different,  as  for  instance,  melting 
points  and  specific  gravities.  Oleic,  stearic  and  palmitic 
acids  when  in  combination,  as  in  cotton  oil,  make  compounds 
known  respectively  as  olein,  stearin  and  palmitin,  which  par- 
take of  the  characteristics  of  their  respective  acids.  The 
first  two  are  the  principal  constituents  of  cotton  oil. 
Olein  remains  liquid  at  a  lower  temperature,  and  is  lighter 
than  stearin;  hence,  as  the  temperature  is  lowered,  stearin 
begins  to  solidify  and  settle.  This  is  the  basis  on  which 
their  separation  is  in  practice  accomplished,  as  in  the  manu- 
facture of  winter  oils. 

Crude  cotton  oil  contains,  besides  free  fatty  acids,  other 
impurities,  such  as  water,  cotton  seed  meal,  mucilaginous 
matter,  and  a  brown  coloring  matter,  which  latter  appears 
to  be  inherent  in  the  seed,  and  to  occur  in  solution  in  the 
oil.  Excepting  the  free  acids  and  the  coloring  matter,  these 
impurities  may  be  removed  by  filtration  or  by  settling;  or 
they  may  be  mostly  prevented  by  care  in  manufacture. 
.  Water  and  mucilaginous  matter  (mostly  albumen)  occur 
naturally  in  cotton  seed,  and  should  be  separated  from  the 
oil  in  process  of  manufacture.  In  these  processes  the  water 
is  mostly  evaporated,  while  albumen  is  coagulated  and  to- 
gether with  the  remaining  water,  is  supposed  to  be  left  in 
the  residue  or  cake,  when  the  oil  is  pressed  out.  Careless- 
ness in  manufacture,  or  an  effort  to  obtain  the  last  bit  of  oil 
in  the  seed,  or  to  rush  the  process  through  in  the  shortest 
time,  will  result  in  throwing  these  impurities  into  the  oil. 
One  of  the  methods  for  quickening  the  time  in  manufacture, 
is  cooking  with  high  pressure  steam.  It  is  necessary  to  heat 
the  kernels  to  about  220  degrees  Fahrenheit.  This  may  be 
accomplished  by  cooking  for  a  long  time  with  steam  at  50 
pounds  pressure  ( 298  degrees  F. ) ,  or  for  a  short  time  with 
steam  at  100  pounds  (338  degrees  F.).  The  former  pro- 
duces the  best  oil ;  the  latter  is  the  cheapest  process.  The 
same  applies  to  the  degree  of  hydraulic  pressure  in  the 
nresses.  Even  the  coloring  matter  in  the  oil  is  hssened  by 
lower  pressure  in  both  cases. 


350  COTTON    SEED    OIE    REFINING. 

In  the  development  of  modern  crude  oil  mills,  high  pres- 
sure and  quick  processes  having,  from  their  commercial  su- 
periority, become  most  common,  it  is  required  of  the  refiner 
to  accept  crude  oil  as  it  comes,  and  make  the  best  refined  pro- 
duct. The  first  requisite  is  to  remove  by  filtration  all  the 
foreign  matter  in  suspension,  and,  if  the  oil  is  to  stand  for 
any  length  of  time  before  refining,  remove,  by  settling  and 
drawing  off,  any  water  that  it  may  contain.  If  crude  oil 
stands  for  several  months  without  this  preliminary  atten- 
tion, the  water  and  particles  of  meal  and  gum  will  sour  in 
the  bottom  of  the  tank,  and  foul  gases  will  rise  through 
the  body  of  the  oil,  and  be  partially  absorbed.  But  if  the  oil 
is  to  be  refined  immediately  after  it  is  made,  these  impurities 
may  be  removed  in  the  course  of  refining. 

Refining  consists  in  removing  free  fatty  acids,  brown 
coloring  matter  and  any  other  foreign  matter  that  may  exist 
in  crude  oil.  This  gives  the  product  commonly  referred  to 
as  "summer  yellow  oil."  It  should  be  a  light  straw  color, 
free  from  sediment  or  water,  and  entirely  neutral,  (that  is, 
free  from  either  acid  or  alkali),  and  nearly  tasteless. 
This  condition  is  referred  to  in  the  trade  generally  as 
"prime,"  or,  when  with  but  the  smallest  possible  taste,  "but- 
ter oil."  The  trade  definitions  are  not  absolute,  but  depend 
upon  the  individual  judgment  of  the  sampler.  Large  sales 
should  always  be  made  by  sample,  rather  than  by  definition. 
As  most  of  the  best  cotton  oil  is  finally  intended  for  culinary 
use,  it  is  best  judged  by  tasting.  Any  oil  that  is  the  least 
offensive  to  a  sensitive  taste,  no  matter  what  its  chemical 
purity,  cannot  pass  as  prime. 

Caustic  soda  is  the  principal  chemical  used  in  refining.  It 
is  received  at  the  refinery  in  iron  drums,  weighing  about  700 
pounds.  The  kind  known  as  74  per  cent,  is  generally  used. 
The  purer  it  can  be  had,  the  better  it  refines.  It  is  sold  on 
a  basis  of  60  per  cent.  If  it  is  74  per  cent.,  the  actual  cost 
is  14-60  more  than  the  basis  price.  The  soda  is  broken  up 
and  dissovled  in  an  iron  tank.  Its  solution  generates  con- 
siderable heat.     Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  handling 


COTTON    SEED    OIL    REFINING.  353 

this  substance,  both  while  solid,  and  while  in  solution,  as  it 
is  very  dangerous.      A  small  drop  of  the  concentrated  solu- 
tion would  make  an  angry  burn  on  the  flesh,  or  would  put 
out  an  eye.     The  dissolving  tank  is  usually  located  under  the 
floor,  so  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  lift  the  heavy  drum  of 
soda  to  get  it  in  the  tank.     When  solution  is  perfect,  it  is 
pumped  into  the  mixing  tank  located  above  the  refining 
tank,    where   water   is   added   to   bring  it   to  the   required 
strength.     Only  the  cleanest,  purest  water  should  be  used, 
and  the  solution  should  be  cool  (not  over  90  degrees)  before 
used.     The  strength  of  the  solution  is  measured  with  a 
hydrometer  with  Baume'  scale.     It  is  usual  to  have  with  the 
hydrometer,  an  iron  or  copper  pot,  holding  about  a  gallon, 
and  being  deep  enough  to  float  the  instrument.     This  is 
dipped  full  of  the  solution,  and  tested  from  time  to  time  as 
the  water  is  added.     The  desired  strength  and  amount  to 
be  used  must  be  separately  determined  for  each  different  lot 
of  crude  oil.     Theoretically,  the  amount  of  alkali  required 
might  be  determined  by  finding  the  amount  of  free  fatty  acid 
present  in  any  particular  lot  of  crude  oil  under  consideration. 
and  calculating  the  amount  of  alkali  necessary  to  neutralize 
it ;  but  practically,  this  would  not  be  sufficient  for  the  pur- 
pose of  refining,  because  it  is  found  by  experience  that  an  ex- 
cess is  required   for  the  purpose   of   saponifying   a   small 
quantity  of  the  oil  after  the  free  acid  is  neutralized.      In  sa- 
ponifying, it  catches  and  carries  to  the  bottom  the  particles 
of  coloring  matter  and  other  floating  impurities.     For  this 
reason  the  amount  of  required  alkali  is  determined  by  making 
small  refinings  in  bottles  in   a  water  bath,    with  varying 
amounts  of  alkali  until  a  sample  of  refined  oil  is  produced 
of  the  desired  color  and  flavor.     The  percentage  of  alkali 
solution  (of  the  strength  used)  for  that  particular  lot  is  as- 
sumed to  be   the   correct  percentage   for   the  entire  tank. 
Within  certain  limits,  the  same  results  may  be  obtained  by 
using  a  larger  quantity  of  weak  solution  or  a  smaller  quantity 
of  strong  solution,  (the  amount  of  actual  caustic  soda  being 
about  the  same  in  each  case).     The  varying  of  these  ele- 


354  COTTON    SEED   OIL    REFINING. 

ments  to  suit  varying  lots  of  crude  oil  gives  scope  to  the 
skill  of  the  refiner.  Generally  a  weaker  solution  is  used  at 
the  beginning  of  the  cotton  oil  season,  when  only  new  oil  is 
refined,  a  smaller  quantity  being  also  required  at  that  time. 
As  the  season  advances,  a  stronger  solution  is  used.  With 
the  best  quality  of  new  crude,  an  amount  of  alkali  solution 
of  6  degrees  Baume'  strength,  equal  by  measure  to  4  per  cent, 
of  the  oil  to  be  refined,  will  be  found  sufficient ;  while  later  in 
the  season,  it  may  require  15  degrees  strength,  and  10  per 
cent  in  quantity.  Crude  oil  which  is  not  prime  (technically 
"off  oil")  may  require  15  degrees  strength  and  20  per  cent, 
in  quantity.  A  700-pound  drum  of  74  per  cent,  caustic  soda 
will  make  about  700  gallons  of  solution  at  15  degrees 
Baume,  or  roughly,  one  gallon  to  the  pound. 

An  iron  tank  capable  of  holding  about  130  barrels,  and 
having  a  conical  bottom,  and  some  means  of  agitating  the 
oil,  and  some  means  of  heating  it,  is  used  for  refining  100 
barrels  of  crude.  This  is  considered  about  the  best  size,  a 
larger  quantity  not  being  capable  of  sufficient  agitation  and 
heating,  and  a  smaller  quantity  not  being  as  profitable.  The 
oil  is  measured  and  pumped  in,  and  the  agitation  begins. 
Then  a  certain  quantity  of  a  solution  of  caustic  soda  of  a 
certain  strength  is  gradually  delivered  from  the  mixing 
tank  over  the  top  of  the  refining  tank  through  a  perforated 
pipe,  which  sprays  it  uniformly  over  the  surface  of  the  agi- 
tated oil. 

It  is  important  that  the  solution  of  alkali  put  into  the  oil 
be  evenly  distributed  in  small  jets  over  the  surface;  other- 
wise, by  reason  of  its  considerably  greater  specific  gravity, 
it  might  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  and  thus  fail 
to  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  oil,  which  is  the 
essential  point  in  the  whole  operation.  After  the  agi- 
tation with  cold  alkali  solution  has  proceeded  for  a 
sufficient  time  to  insure  perfect  mixture  of  oil  and  al- 
kali, (say  30  to  40  minutes)  the  entire  mass  will  have 
turned  almost  black.  Heat  is  then  applied  and  the  tem- 
perature   generally    brought     up    to    120    or    130    degrees 


COTTON    SEED    OIL    REFINING.  355 

(never  in  good  oil  above  140),  agitation  still  proceeding. 
The  heating  and  agitating  are  kept  up  till  quantities  of 
dark  brown  flakes  separate,  and  the  mass  has  a  curdled  ap- 
pearance. The  oil  is  then  dipped  up  from  time  to  time  and 
filtered  through  filter  paper  into  successive  sample  bottles, 
until  one  is  finally  reached  which  is  satisfactory.  Or  if  it 
is  required  to  produce  an  oil  equal  to  a  given  sample,  the 
process  may  he  stopped  when  the  filtered  sample  from  the 
tank  equals  that  required.  It  is  important  to  note,  in  this 
connection,  that  a  sample  kept  as  a  guide  for  a  long  time, 
especially  if  in  a  light  place,  will  grow  lighter  in  color,  on 
account  of  the  bleaching  action  of  light.  The  stearin  will 
also  settle  out,  and  the  sample  will  become  unreliab'e.  All 
samples  should  therefore  be  kept  in  a  dark  place,  and  should 
be  frequently  renewed  by  duplicates  taken  from  fresh  oil. 

When  the  process  of  refining  is  judged  complete,  the  heat 
and  agitation  are  discontinued,  and  the  whole  allowed  to 
stand  until  the  floating  flakes  settle  with  the  excess  of  alkali. 
This  should  occur  in  about  three  hours,  leaving  bright  yel- 
low oil  in  the  upper  part  of  the  tank.  The  yellow  oil  should 
be  drawn  off  through  a  large  pipe  (say  6  inches  in  diam- 
eter), having  its  end  projecting  inside  the  tank  with  a  flex- 
ible connection,  which  will  enable  the  refiner  to  draw  off 
the  yellow  oil  to  any  given  depth,  this  depth  depending  upon 
the  thoroughness  of  settling,  and  the  amount  of  sediment 
(which  varies  with  the  quality  of  the  crude  oil).  The  yel- 
low oil  drawn  from  refining  tank  is  delivered  into  a  similar 
tank  below,  known  as  the  "finishing  tank,"  where  it  is 
heated  and  agitated  again  in  about  the  same  way,  for  the 
purpose  of  evaporating  any  entrained  water.  It  is  allowed 
to  settle  again,  and  is  pumped  off  through  a  filter  press  into 
storage  tanks  or  into  barrels  or  tank  cars  for  shipment. 
The  filter  press  removes  all  sediment,  and  leaves  the  oil  clear 
and  brilliant. 

Some  refiners  now  prefer  not  to  use  the  filter  press.  They 
claim  that  by  settling  out  the  impurities  by  gravity,  the  oil  is 
made  clearer  than  by  the  forced  filtration.       This  process 


356  COTTON    SEED    OIL    REFINING. 

necessarily  requires  more  tank  room  in  the  refinery  than 
when  the  filter  press  is  used. 

If  it  has  been  necessary  to  use  very  strong  alkali,  or  a 
large  quantity  of  it,  the  finished  oil  may  still  taste  of  alkali, 
in  which  case  it  is  necessary  to  wash  it.  This  may  be  clone  in 
a  special  washing  tank  or  in  the  finishing  tank,  after  the 
sediment  has  been  drawn  out  through  the  large  gate  valve  at 
the  lowest  point  of  the  conical  tank  bottom.  Agitation  is 
then  started  in  the  oil,  and  2  to  6  per  cent,  of  clean  water  put 
in  through  perforated  pipes  at  the  top  ( the  same  kind  as  used 
for  distributing  alkali  in  the  refining  tank).  It  is  some- 
times advantageous  to  use  salt  water  for  washing  oil.  It 
is  made  about  10  degrees  Baume'.  The  purpose  is  primarily 
to  make  the  washing  water  considerably  heavier  than  the 
oil,  so  it  will  settle  off  more  readily ;  but  it  is  also  thought  to 
add  to  the  flavor  of  the  oil.  The  temperature  is  brought 
up  to  about  100  degrees  F,,  and  it  is  agitated  for  an  hour. 
Heat  and  agitation  is  then  stopped  and  the  water  allowed  to 
settle  for  several  hours.  This  water  is  drawn  off  at  the  bot- 
tom until  cloudy  oil  appears.  This  cloudy  oil  contains 
some  water,  and  is  to  be  put  into  a  small  tank  and  heated  and 
agitated,  to  drive  off  the  water.  The  clear  oil  in  the  finish- 
ing tank  still  contains  a  little  water,  which  must  be  drive  i  off 
by  heat  and  agitation.  The  purpose  of  separating  the  small 
quantity  of  cloudy  oil,  containing  most  of  the  entrained 
water,  is  that  its  water  may  be  more  easily  expelled  than  if 
left  with  the  large  lot.  Great  care  is  necessary  in  heating- 
refined  oil,  especially  when  mixed  with  water.  Its  flavor  is 
easily  ruined  by  heat.  It  begins  to  decompose  at  about  140 
degrees  F.,  and  should  therefore  never  exceed  that  tempera- 
ture, and  be  kept  as  much  below  that  as  will  accomplish  the 
ends  required. 

First  class  crude  oil  in  the  early  part  of  the  season  may, 
with  sufficient  skill,  be  refined  at  a  temperature  below  100 
degrees  F.  In  working  oil  by  this  cold  process,  no  addi- 
tional heat  is  applied  in  the  finishing  tank,  but  the  water  is 
driven  off  by  agitation.     The  oil  is  required  to  stand  quiet 


COTTON    SEED    OIL    REFINING.  357 

for  ten  or  twelve  hours,  so  that  any  remaining  water  may 
settle  out. 

With  a  special  view  to  working  at  lower  temperature,  it  is 
well  to  make  the  finishing  tank  large  in  diameter  and  shal- 
low, thus  presenting  the  maximum  surface  for  evaporating 
the  entrained  water. 

But  the  most  perfect  way  to  remove  the  water  at  low  tem- 
perature would  be  to  use  a  finishing  tank  with  an  air  tight 
cover,  supplied  with  a  vacuum  pump.  By  this  process, 
the  water  is  vaporized  and  removed,  and  any  other  bad 
gases  or  odors  are  drawn  out. 

In  refining  "off  oils,"  which  are  net  sold  on  a  basis  of 
flavor,  high  temperatures  do  not  damage  the  quality.  Off 
oil  is  harder  to  reduce  to  a  light  color  than  prime  oil,  and,  as 
it  is  sold  on  a  basis  of  color  only,  and,  as  higher  tempera- 
tures produce  brighter  colors,  it  is  frequently  economical  to 
heat  these  oils  as  high  as  160  or  170  degrees  F. 

The  sediment  left  in  the  bottom  of  refining  and  finishing 
tanks  is  drawn  off  into  a  tank  below  and  heated  again  to 
separate  what  oil  may  have  gone  down  with  the  sediment. 
This  good  oil  is  skimmed  from  the  top  of  tank,  and  the  resi- 
due is  drawn  off  into  barrels  with  large  bung  holes,  and  is 
sold  as  "soap  stock." 

Soap  stock  consists  of  saponified  oil,  water,  free  alkali  and 
the  dark  brown  coloring  matter  derived  from  crude  oil.  It 
is  sold  to  soap  makers  on  the  basis  of  contained  fatty  acids. 
Fifty  per  cent,  is  the  standard,  but  it  usually  runs  about 
sixty.  This  is  not  "free  fatty  acid,"  but  is  in  combination, 
and  can  be  easily  separated  from  combination  for  use  in  soap 
making. 

Some  refineries  utilize  their  own  soap  stock,  and  make 
crude  soaps.  Of  late  years,  there  has  grown  up  a  large  de- 
mand for  this  product  in  wool  scouring  and  other  establish- 
ments in  this  country  and  in  Europe.  This  adds  consider- 
ably to  the  profits  of  a  refinery.  With  sufficient  skill,  there 
is  no  limit  to  the  extent  to  which  this  work  may  be  carried, 
in  the  way  of  turning  all  the  products  into  more  and  more 


358  COTTON  SEED  OIL  REFINING. 

valuable  commodities.  With  the  admixture  of  other 
greases,  the  finest  grades  of  laundry  soap  may  be  made.  A 
soap-making  adjunct  to  the  refinery  is  also  useful  in  using  up 
off  grades  of  oil  when  their  market  price  becomes  low. 

Prime  crude  oil,  loses,  in  being  refined  to  prime  summer 
yellow,  5  to  12  per  cent.,  according  to  age  and  general 
quality.  Off  oils  may  lose  as  much  as  20  per  cent.  This 
loss  is  the  difference  between  crude  oil  and  the  resulting  re- 
fined oil,  and  the  percentage  is  computed  on  the  crude  oil  su  ;- 
plied.  The  amount  of  soap  stock  deposited  is  of  course 
greater  than  the  loss  in  oil,  by  an  amount  equal  to  the  alkali 
solution  supplied. 

The  loss  in  refining  is  entirely  too  much  in  excess  of  the 
theoretical  possibility,  and  the  process  is  much  in  need  of 
improvement.  A  logical  direction  in  which  to  proceed 
would  seem  to  be  toward  some  bleaching  process,  but  so  far, 
no  known  bleaching  agent  except  sulphuric  acid  cr  its  equiva- 
lent, has  any  effect  on  crude  oil.  It  is  obviously  impossi- 
ble to  use  sulphuric  acid  in  oil  intended  for  culinary  use. 

Summer  white  oil  is  made  from  summer  yellow  by  agitat- 
ing and  heating  with  fullers  earth,  and  pumping  the  agitated 
mass  through  a  filter  press.  This  filter  removes  the  fullers 
earth,  and  delivers  fairly  white  oil,  depending  for  color  upon 
the  quality  of  yellow  oil  used,  and  quality  of  fullers  earth, 
and  skill  of  refiner.  Most  summer  white  oil  has  a  taste  de- 
rived from  fullers  earth,  and  this  was  formerly  accepted  as 
necessary.  Now,  however,  white  oil  will  not  pass  as  prime, 
unless  almost  water  white,  and  free  from  taste  of  fullers 
earth.  In  order  to  produce  the  color  now  requir:d,  it  is 
necessary  to  refine  the  yellow  oil  to  a  specially  bright  yellow, 
and  to  use  about  3  per  cent.,  by  volume,  of  fullers  earth, 
whereas  1  to  2  per  cent,  was  formerly  considered  suf- 
ficient. This  large  amount  of  fullers  earth  makes  the 
taste  more  pronounced.  Fullers  earth  is  slightly  acid  to  the 
taste.  This  acid  is  now  sometimes  neutralized,  and  the 
taste  destroyed,  by  the  addition  of  1  to  2  per  cent,  of  carbon- 
ate of  soda,  or,  as  it  is  known  in  the  trade,  "soda  ash." 


COTTON    SEED    OIL    REFINING.  359 

Only  the  better  grades  of  soda  ash  should  be  used  for  this 
purpose.  The  oil,  the  fullers  earth  and  the  soda  should  all 
be  entirely  free  from  water  or  moisture.  If  the  filter  press 
is  in  good  order,  the  white  oil  should  be  brilliant,  and  there 
should  be  no  appreciable  loss  of  the  oil  in  the  operation. 
This  process,  though  called  bleaching,  seems  to  be  princi- 
pally a  mechanical  one,  and  is  not  well  understood. 

Pulverized  charcoal,  especially  animal  charcoal  (or  bone 
black),  would  do  this  work  of  bleaching  as  well  as  fullers 
earth,  and  leave  a  better  taste  in  the  oil.  Its  use,  however, 
would  cause  great  risk  of  fire  by  spontaneous  combustion, 
which  is  not  attached  to  the  use  of  fullers  earth. 

Miners'  oil  is  a  white  oil  that  is  bleached  from  yellow  oil 
by  the  use  of  sulphuric  acid.  The  demand  for  this  oil  is 
limited,  and  but  few  refineries  are  equipped  for  making  it. 
The  process  is  conducted  in  lead-lined  tanks.  The  poorest 
quality  of  crude  oil  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  It  is  first 
refined  to  a  dark  yellow,  at  a  small  loss,  and  sulphuric  acid 
bleaches  it  with  but  small  loss,  to  any  degree  of  whiteness. 
This  oil  is  used  to  mix  with  petroleum  for  use  in  miners' 
lamps. 

Winter  oils  are  those  which  remain  liquid  at  32  degrees, 
F.  Ordinary  refined  oils  (summer  oils)  begin  to  cloud  at 
28  to  40  degrees,  and  become  totally  congealed  at  about 
30.  This  cloudiness  is  caused  by  congelation  of  stearin, 
which  turns  whiter  as  it  becomes  solid.  Winter  oils  are 
made  from  summer  oils  by  lowering  the  temperature  just 
to  the  point  where  stearin  congeals  and  olein  remains  liquid, 
and  separating  the  two  by  filtration  under  pressure  at  that 
temperature.  Winter  oils,  therefore  are  principally  olein. 
Winter  yellow  is  considered  the  best  oil  for  use  in  cooking, 
as  a  substitute  for  lard. 

Olein  does  not  decompose  at  high  temperature  as  readily 
as  stearin,  so  that  in  using  it  for  frying,  it  does  not  give  off 
the  disagreeable  smell  so  noticeable  with  summer  oils. 

The  equipment  for  producing  winter  oils  is  quite  expen- 
sive, involving  the  construction  of  an  ice  plant,  and,  as  the 


360  COTTON    SEED    OIL    REFINING. 

demand  for  the  products  is  limited,  few  refineries  are  equip- 
ped for  making  them. 

Every  operation  around  the  refinery  should  be  conducted 
with  the  greatest  cleanliness.  Floors  should  be  kept 
scoured,  and  all  tanks  and  pipes  should  be  kept  clean,  inside 
and  outside. 

Refined  oil,  when  shipped  to  lard  refiners  in  the  West,  goes 
almost  exclusively  in  tank  cars.  When  for  export,  it  is 
shipped  in  barrels.  When  empty  tank  cars  are  received, 
they  should  be  cleaned  inside  by  hand ;  and  then  a  steam  pipe 
should  be  inserted  and  live  steam  blown  in  until  entire  tank 
is  very  hot.  This  melts  down  any  rancid  oil  or  lard  that 
may  adhere.  It  should  then  be  thoroughly  washed  out  with 
a  hose.  A  man  should  go  inside  and  scrub  it.  He  should 
examine  every  pipe  and  joint  to  see  that  no  leaks  exist  or  are 
likely  to  develop  on  the  next  trip.  A  carload  of  oil  is  so  val- 
uable that  it  pays  to  exercise  every  precaution  to  prevent  a 
possibility  of  leakage.  Most  cars  are  provided  with  a  se- 
ries of  coils  of  pipe  inside  for  the  purpose  of  heating  chilled 
oil  with  steam.  The  two  ends  of  the  pipe  project  through 
the  tank,  and,  if  there  is  no  break  in  the  pipe,  no  oil  could 
leak  out;  but  these  pipes  frequently  jar  loose  on  a  journey, 
so  that  it  is  necessary  to  plug  up  or  cap  the  ends  before  ship- 
ping. 

Barrels  for  the  shipment  of  refined  oils  should  be 
strictly  new,  made  of  well  seasoned  oak  with  six  heavy  iron 
hoops.  The  head  hoops  should  not  extend  more  than  1-8 
inch  beyond  end  of  staves,  and  should  be  so  tight  that  they 
cannot  be  driven  more  than  1-8  inch  below  end  of  staves 
Barrels  should  weigh  about  70  pounds  and  hold  about  52 
gallons.  Barrels  should  be  made  with  the  utmost  care, 
from  the  dryest  timber.  Even  the  best  barrels  will  dry  out 
somewhat  after  being  received  at  the  refinery,  so  that  the 
hoops  must  be  driven  tight  just  before  using.  After  the 
hoops  are  driven,  the  barrels  should  be  lined  with  silicate 
of  soda,  to  prevent  oil  from  saturating  the  wood.  Silicate 
of  soda  is  a  soluble  glass.     It  is  generally  received  in  barrels, 


COTTON    SEED    OIL    REFINING.  363 

holding  about  600  pounds.  It  is  a  heavy  viscous  liquid  of 
a  creamy  color,  soluble  in  water,  and  becoming  hard  and 
glassy  when  dry.  It  is  put  with  an  equal  amount  of  water 
into  a  steam  jacketed  kettle,  holding  about  20  gallons.  It  is 
boiled,  and  about  a  gallon  poured  hot  into  each  barrel.  The 
bung  hole  is  stopped  with  a  long  plug,  the  barrel  is  shaken 
in  every  direction  until  the  hot  liquid  reaches  every  part  of 
the  inside.  The  gas  generated  will  force  the  liquid  through 
any  worm  holes  or  other  defects  in  the  barrel,  so  that  they 
may  be  discovered  and  plugged  up.  The  plug  is  pulled  out 
of  the  bung  hole,  the  surplus  liquid  poured  out,  and  the  bar- 
rel laid  bung  hole  down,  on  an  inclined  trough,  so  the  drip- 
pings may  return  to  the  kettle.  In  six  hours  the  barrel  is 
dry.  and  after  being  painted  and  weighed,  is  ready  for  use. 
It  requires  about  a  pound  of  commercial  silicate  for  each 
barrel.  Formerly,  barrels  were  lined  with  glue  by  a  process 
similar  to  the  above;  but  at  best,  glue  is  likely  in  time  to 
attain  a  bad  smell.  Again,  if  a  ban  el  lined  with  glue  is 
heated  in  any  manner  to  melt  out  oil  in  cold  weather,  the 
glue  will  also  melt  and  spoil  the  oil.  For  these  reasons,  in 
the  best  refineries,  glue  is  no  longer  used  for  the  purpose. 

Some  refiners  prefer  paraffine  wax  for  lining  barrels. 
This  is  melted  and  applied  in  the  same  way  as  silicate  of 
soda.  No  matter  what  lining  is  used,  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  put  hot  oil  into  the  barrels.  Oil  should  never  be  bar- 
reled warmer  than  80  degrees,  or  in  summer,  never  above 
the  temperature  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere. 

It  requires  the  greatest  care  to  make  barrels  oil  tight, 
even  before  they  are  shipped;  and  when  they  are  load  d  and 
unloaded  several  times,  hoops  are  likely  to  slip,  or  leaks  de- 
velop from  other  causes.  Thus  it  is  imperative  that  not  a 
single  barrel  should  leave  the  refinery  except  in  perfect 
order.  If  a  barrel  creaks  while  rolling  on  the  floor,  it  is 
in  bad  order,  and  should  be  driven  up  or  emptied.  One 
leaky  barrel  in  a  cargo  is  likely  to  smear  the  whole  lot  and 
make  the  hoops  greasy  and  easy  to  slip.  In  many  foreign 
■countries,  barrels  are  unloaded  by  sliding  endwise  down 


364  COTTON    SEED    OIL    REFINING. 

skids.  This  will  cause  any  loose  hoops  to  slip.  Two  plans 
are  in  current  use  for  holding  hoops.  One  is  to  drive  three 
small  special  tacks  in  front  of  each  hoop,  and  the  other  to 
drive  a  centre-punch  into  each  hoop  at  about  three  points, 
thus  producing  under  the  hoop  a  small  projection  which 
drives  into  the  stave.  Neither  plan  is  free  from  objections; 
the  tacks  are  apt  to  work  loose  and  hurt  the  hands  of  the  men 
who  handle  the  barrels,  while  centre-punching  makes  the 
hoops  very  hard  to  tighten,  in  case  it  should  become  neces- 
sary. 

If  second  hand  barrels  are  used  in  any  case,  they  should  be 
thoroughly  cleaned  out  with  live  steam.  A  trough  is  pro- 
vided, across  which  the  barrels  may  be  laid,  bung  hole  down. 
A  series  of  -J-inch  steam  pipes  should  project  up  from  the 
bottom  of  the  trough,  at  the  proper  distance  apart,  to  stick  up 
a  few  inches  into  the  barrels.  Live  steam  should  be  blown 
into  them  for  at  least  15  minutes,  more  or  less,  according 
to  what  the  barrels  have  contained.  It  is  impossible  by  any 
ordinary  means,  to  sufficiently  clean  barrels  having  been 
used  for  varnish,  linseed  oil,  or  crude  petroleum.  Before 
second  hand  barrels  are  filled,  each  one  should  be  examined 
inside  by  the  light  of  a  candle  attached  to  a  wire  and  let 
down  through  the  bung  hole. 

A  first  class  refinery  for  the  production  of  summer  oils, 
to  refine  100  barrels  at  a  time,  could  turn  out  200  to  300  bar- 
rels per  day.  The  building  would  be  about  30x60,  three 
stories  high,  with  barrel  shed  30x60,  one  story,  built  to  have 
120  feet  front  on  railroad  siding,  giving  access  to  several 
cars  at  a  time.     The  equipment  would  be  as  follows : 

One  refining  tank  to  hold  130  barrels,  with  conical  bot- 
tom, with  6-inch  gate  valve  in  bottom  and  6-inch  outlet 
valve  two  feet  above  bottom  of  cylindrical  part  of  tank. 
Through  the  side  outlet  is  inserted  a  pipe  with  two  elbows 
inside,  arranged  to  let  a  connecting  pipe  be  raised  and 
lowered  inside,  so  oil  may  be  drawn  from  any  height.  In 
the  bottom  is  arranged  a  series  of  steam  pipes  to  heat  the  oil. 
It  is  preferably  constructed  of  T-inch  pipe  bent  in  smooth 


COTTON    SEED    OIL    REFINING.  365 

coils,  making  about  four  complete  rounds,  one  above  the 
other  against  the  side,  and  also  two  coils  on  the  bottom. 
It  is  frequently  constructed  in  square  coils  with  elbows  or 
return  bends.  This  arrangement  is  harder  to  clean,  because 
soap  stock  will  adhere  and  cake  on  the  fittings.  Steam  is 
admitted  to  the  coils  through  a  pipe  leading  down  the  side 
froni  the  top,  where  the  admission  valve  is  placed.  The  ex- 
haust may  go  out  in  the  same  way,  with  valve  near  the  ad- 
mission valve.  This  is  convenient,  but  not  quite  so  good 
as  to  have  the  exhaust  go  out  at  the  bottom,  so  that  it  may 
more  perfectly  drain  condensed  water  from  the  coils.  An 
ideal  refining  tank  would  be  made  with  steam  jacket  over 
its  entire  surface ;  but  this  would  be  more  expensive.  There 
are  two  methods  of  producing  agitation  of  oil,  first  by  pad- 
dles, mounted  on  a  vertical  shaft  standing  in  centre  of  tank, 
run  by  bevel  gearing  and  a  belt ;  second  by  a  series  of  per- 
forated pipes  in  bottom  of  tank,  through  which  air  is 
pumped.  Either  method  may  produce  a  perfect  agitation 
and  perfect  results.  Paddles  are  considerably  more  trouble 
to  keep  in  order,  and  present  more  surface  inside  the  tank 
to  become  foul  with  soap  stock;  but  there  are  refiners  who 
claim  that  they  make  better  oil  with  this  system.  The  air 
method  has  the  advantage  of  carrying  away  entrained  water 
while  passing  through  oil,  especially  in  the  later  processes, 
where  oil  is  washed  and  dried. 

There  are,  besides  the  refining  tank : 

1  finishing  tank,  of  same  size  and  description  as  refining 
tank,  except  that  side  outlet  is  unnecessary. 

1  bleaching  tank  for  white  oil,  same  as  finishing  tank. 

1  50-barrel  tank,  same  as  finishing  tank,  for  sundry  pur- 
poses. 

1  soap  stock  tank  holding  40  barrels,  with  conical  bottom, 
and  steam  coil. 

1  plain  10-barrel  dissolving  tank  for  alkali. 

1   plain  30-barrel  mixing  tank  for  alkali. 

1  plain  60-barrel  tank  for  receiving  crude  oil  which  may 
arrive  in  barrels. 


366  COTTON    SEED    OIL    REFINING. 

Storage  tanks  for  crude  and  refined  oils,  to  suit  circum- 
stances, say  3  500-barrel  crude  oil  tanks,  and  3  500-barrel 
refined  oil  tanks.  These  may  be  located  outside  the  refinery, 
about  50  feet  away,  under  a  shed;  or  the  tanks  themselves 
may  be  made  with  covers.  They  should  be  provided  with 
steam  coils  to  melt  oil  in  winter.  They  should  have  man- 
holes, top  and  bottom,  for  access  in  cleaning.  Both  oil  and 
steam  pipes  leading  to  the  refinery  should  be  well  insulated 
and  laid  under  ground. 

1  50-  to  100-barrel  elevated  water  tank. 

1  50-horse  power  steam  boiler  with  accessories. 

1  filter  press  with  steam  pump. 

1  6x4x6  steam  pump  for  crude  oil. 

1  6x4x6  steam  pump  for  refined  oil. 

1  6x4x6  steam  pump  for  alkali. 

1  6x4x6  steam  pump  for  water  supply. 

T  7x10x10  steam  air  pump,  if  air  agitation  is  used. 

If  mechanical  agitation  is  to  be  used,  1  5-hors?  power 
steam  engine  must  be  supplied.  But  in  case  an  engine  has 
to  be  supplied  at  all,  it  is  bettter  to  have  a  large  engine,  say 
25  horse  power,  and  substitute  for  steam  pumps,  power 
pumps  throughout.  In  any  case,  power  pumps  are  more 
economical  with  steam,  though  steam  pumps  are  more  con- 
venient. If  it  is  desired  to  use  power  pumps,  air  agitation 
may  be  supplied  from  a  Root  blower  or  other  positive  blast 
fan. 

The  refining  tank  should  be  placed  so  its  top  is  three  feet 
above  the  third  floor  of  the  building;  the  finishing  tank  and 
bleaching  tank  three  feet  above  second  floor ;  and  soap  stock 
tank  with  its  bottom  three  feet  above  first  floor,  and  its  top 
just  under  the  refining  tank.  The  alkali  dissolving  tank 
should  be  under  the  first  floor,  and  the  alkali  mixing  tank 
above  the  refining  tank.  The  crude  oil  receiving  tank 
should  be  under  the  first  floor,  so  that  barrels  may  be  rolled 
over  it  for  emptying  oil.  All  the  oil  steam  pumps  may  be 
located  together  in  a  pump  room  on  the  first  floor,  and  all 
connected  to  two  sets  of  manifolds,  one  for  crude  and  one  for 


COTTON    SEED    OIL    REFINING.  367 

refined  oil,  so  that  any  pump  may  pump  oil  from  any  tank — 
similar  in  operation  to  the  switchboard  of  an  electric  plant. 
There  should  be  two  entire  sets  of  pipes  throughout,  one  for 
crude  and  one  for  refined  oil,  both  sets  being  connected 
to  all  tanks,  so  that  in  emergency  one  tank  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  another.  To  avoid  mistakes,  crude  oil  pipes  should 
be  painted  brown,  and  refined  oil  pipes  yellow.  At  each 
turn  in  the  pipes,  plugged  tees  should  be  used  instead  of  el- 
bows, so  that  they  may  be  easily  cleaned  inside. 

The  refining,  finishing  and  bleaching  tanks  should  be  pro- 
vided with  hoods  commencing  three  feet  above  tank,  and 
terminating  in  16  inch  galvanized  pipes  leading  out  of  the 
building.  These  carry  off  the  gases  and  steam.  The  bleach- 
ing tank  should  be  in  a  separate  room,  to  prevent  the  fine 
powdered  fullers  earth  from  flying  over  the  refinery. 

Soap  stock  should  be  handled  in  a  separate  room  from  oil, 
so  that  the  smells  and  general  uncleanliness  of  the  article 
may  not  contaminate  the  oil. 

If  air  agitation  is  used, the  air  supply  must  come  from  out- 
side the  building,  where  it  is  clean  and  pure.  In  general,  all 
operations  must  be  conducted  with  the  greatest  regard  for 
cleanliness.  Refined  cotton  oil  is  a  delicate  article,  and  may 
be  easilv  damaged  by  careless  handling". 


Part  III. 


CORRELATED 
INDUSTRIES. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

Cattle  jfeeMng. 

Both  cotton  seed  hulls  and  cotton  seed  meal  are  excellent 
food  for  cattle,  sheep  and  goats.  This  fact  has  developed 
in  the  South  a  business  in  fattening  cattle  for  the  market, 
and    has   also   very    much    stimulated    the    dairy   business. 

The  fattening  of  beef  is  done  to  a  much  larger  extent  in 
the  Southwestern  States  than  in  those  of  the  Southeast. 
The  business  is  still  extending  throughout  the  entire  cotton- 
growing  States,  and  especially  where  conditions  are  already 
favorable  to  raising  stock,  as,  for  example,  in  the  piedmont 
region. 

The  business  has  been  somewhat  retarded  by  those  who, 
learning  of  the  value  of  cotton  seed  hulls  and  cotton  seed 
meal  as  a  feeding  stuff  for  certain  animals,  went  into  the 
business  of  cattle  feeding  without  due  consideration  of 
ordinary  commercial  economies.  These  over-zealous 
people  paid,  in  many  cases,  too  much  for  the  cattle  pur- 
chased, spent  too  much  money  on  sheds  and  appliances, 
and  bought  cattle  that  were  too  small,  of  inferior  breeds,  or 
that  had  to  be  transported  a  long  distance,  and  perhaps 
acclimated. 

There  have  been  cases  where  cattle  feeding  was  conducted 
on  a  spectacular  basis,  where  pens  and  sheds  were  located 
more  with  relation  to  public  display  than  to  general  con- 
venience and  economy.  In  such  cases  great  expense  would 
be  incurred  in  fitting  up  waterworks,  consisting  of  boilers, 
pumping  engine,  piping,  etc.  The  average  practical 
farmer  will  understand  that  the  time  is  not  yet  come  when 
beef  cattle  may  be  kept  profitably  in  stalls  with  baths  at- 
tached. 

To  make  a  success  of  fattening  cattle  for  market  or  of 
conducting  a  dairy  farm,  there  must  be  good  judgment 
and  economy  in  the  purchase  of  stock  and  in  the  conduct 
of  the  business. 


372  CATTLE    FEEDING. 

While  cotton  seed  rr.eal  and  hulls  may  be  fed  exclusively 
for  the  purpose  of  fattening-  cattle  in  from  80  to  100  days, 
yet  en  the  farm,  this  commercial  material  should  be  re- 
garded more  as  supplemental  to  the  great  variety  of  feed- 
ing stuffs  that  are  naturally  and  cheaply  produced  on  the 
farm.  In  the  dairy  business,  this  mixing  of  the  feeds  is 
even  more  important  than  in  beef  business.  This  improves 
both  the  quantity  and  the  quality  of  the  products,  and  keeps 
the  cows  in  better  health  and  spirits. 

The  Southern  planter  always  raised  quantities  of  cattle 
feed,  and  previous  to  the  Civil  War,  even  when  producing 
mostly  cotton,  gave  considerable  attention  to  cattle  raising. 
After  the  War,  however,  the  cattle  industry  declined  in  the 
cotton-growing  States  until  the  use  of  cotton  seed  meal  and 
hulls  became  well  known  as  a  cattle  feed.  It  it  now 
being  more  and  more  realized  that  these  feeding  stuffs  are 
of  prime  importance,  and  this  in  turn  stimulates  the  grow- 
ing of  more  farm  feeding  stuffs,  in  order  to  improve  the 
cotton  industry  and  produce  better  feed.  Thus  the  busi- 
ness of  feeding  cattle  on  a  large  scale,  both  for  beef  and 
for  dairy  purposes  has  advanced  from  a  very  arduous 
condition  to  a  comparatively  easy,  as  well  as  profitable  one. 

Beef  Cattle 

In  the  Southwestern  States,  the  business  of  fattening 
cattle  for  the  beef  markets  on  hulls  and  meal  at  the  oil 
mills,  or  near  them,  has  become  standard,  and  is  extensively 
done.  It  is  probable  that  half  a  million  animals  are  an- 
nually fattened  on  hulls  and  meal,  and  sent  to  market  from 
the  cotton  States  west  of  the  Mississippi  River.  East  of 
the  river,  the  business  is  not  so  well  established,  but  is 
growing. 

Meal  is  extensively  used  as  a  fertilizer,  and  hulls  have  also 
some  little  value  as  a  fertilizer.  When  fed  to  cattle,  80  to 
95  per  cent,  of  the  fertilizer  values  may  be  recovered,  and 
this  is  done  in  many  cases.  The  original  fertilizing  values 
in  both  meal  and  hulls  which  have  been  fed  are  nearlv  all 


CATTLE    FEEDING.  375 

in  the  solid' and  liquid  excrement — approximately  half  being 
in  the  dung  and  half  in  the  urine.  When  feeding  cattle  in 
large  pens,  the  liquids  are  practically  lost,  and  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  collect  the  solid  excrement  and  keep  it  in  a  man- 
ner to  conserve  the  fertilizing  values.  In  this  way  as  ordi- 
narily done,  there  is  saved  only  about  20  per  cent,  of  the 
original  fertilizing  value  of  the  meal  and  hulls.  If,  how- 
ever, the  cattle  are  regularly  moved  from  one  large  pen  to 
another,  and  the  ground  promptly  put  into  cultivation,  it 
is  possible  to  realize  80  to  95  per  cent  of  the  original  ferti- 
lizing values.  It  may  also  be  equally  well  done  if  the  cattle 
are  carefully  stalled,  so  that  by  the  use  of  litter  and  finely 
cut  straw,  the  liquid  may  be  absorbed  and  mixed  with  the 
solids.  The  tramping  of  the  cattle  helps  to  compact  the 
manures  and  prevent  loss  of  ammonia  by  evaporation. 

It  is  very  easy  to  lose  large  amounts  of  ammonia  by 
evaporation.  This  is  the  most  expensive  ingredient  in  any 
fertilizer,  and  no  pains  should  be  spared  to  accumulate  it 
from  all  natural  sources  and  to  prevent  its  waste  by  evapo- 
ration or  otherwise.  It  is  profitable  to  mix  acid  phosphate 
with  stable  manure  to  preserve  it,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
thus  produce  a  valuable  farm  compost.  The  proper  study 
of  fertilizer  values  is  of  utmost  importance  to  the  profitable 
conduct  of  any  kind  of  cattle  feeding. 

In  fattening  cattle  on  cotton  seed  meal  and  hulls,  the 
usual  practice  is  to  commence  with  a  ration  of  hulls  18 
pounds,  meal  3  pounds,  (or  6  to  1),  and  quickly  increase 
to  hulls  20  pounds,  meal  4  pounds  (5  to  1),  and  toward 
the  end  of  the  period  of  80  to  100  days,  increase  to  hulls 
24  pounds,  meal  6  pounds  (4  to  1).  This  kind  of  ration 
and  quantity  must  be  governed  by  circumstances.  Some 
wild  cattle  from  the  prairies  will  not  eat  the  mixture  in  any 
proportion  whatever,  and  they  have  to  be  starved  to  it, 
Other  cattle,  mostly  home-raised,  like  it  from  the  first ;  but 
they  all  learn  to  be  very  fond  of  it.  Care  must  be  taken 
not  to  make  the  ration  too  rich  in  meal  at  first,  for  the 
reason  that  this  tends  to  make  the  animals  "scour." 


3/6  CATTLE    FEEDING. 

It  is  generally  assumed  that  an  average  steer  may  be  fat- 
tened in  fine  condition  for  the  market  on  one  ton  of  hulls 
and  400  pounds  of  meal. 

Figs.  115  and  116  show  a  form  of  shed  which  is  some- 
times used  for  fattening  steers  on  cotton  seed  meal  and  hulls. 
The  steers  are  chained  to  stanchions,  with  their  heads  to- 
wards the  centre  alley  or  driveway,  as  shown.  They  have 
free  access  to  a  continuous  trough,  containing  alternate 
compartments  for  water  and  feed.  The  water  is  supplied 
from  the  city  waterworks  or  otherwise  through  float  valves, 
so  arranged  that  the  troughs  are  always  full  of  water.  The 
feed  is  distributed  from  wagons,  driven  down  the  centre. 

Fig.  117  shows  cattle  being  fed  in  open  pens.  Both 
methods  have  been  successfully  used;  but  the  general 
opinion  prevails  that  better  results  obtain  when  cattle  are 
fed  under  some  kind  of  shelter.  Some  successful  feeders 
combine  the  two  plans,  and  allow  the  cattle  to  roam  in  large 
pens,  and  to  go  under  shelter  to  feed.  Much  depends  upon 
the  kind  of  cattle  fed.  Texas  steers  with  wide  dangerous 
horns  are  hard  to  manage  in  the  open.  When  left  loose 
they  frequently  fight  among  themselves  with  fatal  results.  If 
the  ground  for  the  pens  is  soft  or  not  well  drained,  they  are 
apt  to  mire  up,  and  in  many  ways  dissipate  the  energy  in  the 
feed,  instead  of  storing  it  up  as  fat. 

The  practice  of  de-horning  is  now  universally  recom- 
mended, to  save  room  in  stalling  and  shipping,  and  for 
general  safety  in  handling. 

The  following  estimates  show  some  average  results  from 
cattle  feeding,  with  average  market  values,  but  under  differ- 
ent conditions : 


CATTLE    FEEDING.  379 

INDIFFERENT     STEER.— INDIFFERENT     HAND- 
LING. 

Cost  of  steer,  700  lbs  @  3 $21.00 

2,000  lbs  hulls 4.00 

400  lbs  meal 4.00 

Attendance   6.00 

$35.00 

Sale  of  fattened  steer,  900  lbs  @  3^0 $31 -5° 

Loss $3-5° 

This  exhibits  about  an  average  condition  in  many  parts 
of  the  Southeastern  States,  where  the  proper  care  is  not 
given  to  the  breed  of  animals  nor  to  its  handling  before  or 
during  feeding. 

FAIR  STEER.— FAIR  PREVIOUS  HANDLING. 

Cost  of  steer.  1,000  lbs  @  2\ $25.00 

2,000  lbs  hulls 4.00 

400  lbs  meal 4.00 

Attendance  and  other  expenses 6.00 

$39.00 

Sale  of  fattened  steer,  1,300  lbs  @  3^ $45-50 

Profit $6.50 

'  This  exhibits  about  an  average  condition  in  Texas. 


380  CATTLE    FEEDING. 


GOOD  STEER.— GOOD  PREVIOUS  HANDLING. 

Cost  of  steer,  1,200  lbs  (a   3c $36.00 

2,400  lbs  hulls 4.8.} 

500  lbs  meal 5.00 

Attendance  and  other  expense 6.20 

$52.00 

Sale  of  fattened  steer,  1,600  lbs  (a  4c $64.00 

Profit $12.03 

In  all  these  cases,  no  account  is  taken  of  the  fertilizer 
values  that  may  be  practically  recovered.  This  may  bs 
estimated  at  an  average  of  say  $4  per  steer.  This  credit 
would  bring  the  example  of  unprofitable  feeding  up  to  a 
basis  of  a  half  dollar  profit,  besides  fair  compensation  for 
wages. 

There  have  been  special  cases  where  "feeders"  (those  who 
fatten  cattle  for  market),  have  made  $20.00  and  even  higher 
profits  per  head ;  but  all  very  high  profits  are  speculative — 
the  result  of  a  rise  in  price  of  cattle  between  the  time  of 
purchase  and  sale.  There  are  cases  also,  where  from  $10 
to  $15  per  head  have  been  lost  from  the  same  cause. 

The  above  estimates  all  relate  to  the  use  of  hulls  and  meal 
alone  for  feed.  In  the  Southwest,  this  is  the  usual  prac- 
tice, and  is  necessarily  so,  because  at  the  time  when  the  cat- 
tle are  usually  brought  in  from  the  prairie  pastures,  hulls 
and  meal  are  the  only  feeding  stuffs  that  are  at  the  same 
time  good  enough  and  cheap  enough  to  prepare  beef  for  the 
market.  In  the  Southeastern  States,  the  conditions  are  very 
different.  On  most  of  the  farms  there  is  considerable 
good  pasture  land;  and  on  the  farms  other  feeding  stuffs 
are  available,  such  as  corn  shucks,  straw,  pea-vines,  etc.  If 
the  Eastern  farmer  would  make  use  of  all  these  materials- 


M 


d 


CATTLE    FEEDING.  383 

and  supplement  them  with  hulls  and  meal,  his  results  should 
be  even  better  than  those  obtained  by  the  Texas  ranchman. 

If,  in  addition  to  this  economical  system  of  raising  and 
feeding  cattle,  with  home-raised  food  stuffs,  supplemented 
by  hulls  and  meal,  the  Southeastern  farmer  would  improve 
the  breed  of  his  stock,  there  seems  no  room  to  doubt  that  a 
very  large  business  would  develop  in  the  production  of 
cattle  and  fattening  them  for  market.  Indeed,  quite  a  busi- 
ness is  already  being  successfully  done  by  those  who  under- 
stand it.  Thus,  the  production  of  cotton,  and  the  raising 
of  cattle  are  businesses  that  are  supplemental  each  to  the 
other :  the  cotton  furnishing  the  hulls  and  meal  as  feeding 
stuffs  for  the  growing  cattle,  while  the  cattle  manure  fur- 
nishes the  food,  as  it  were,  for  the  growing  cotton. 

All  that  is  said  of  cattle  feeding  is  more  or  less  appli- 
cable to  sheep  feeding. 

Hulls  and  meal  have  been  tried  for  horses  and  swine,  but 
not  with  very  satisfactory  results. 

For  working  oxen,  as,  for  example,  at  saw  mills,  there  is 
no  better  or  more  economical  feed  than  cotton  seed  hulls  and 
meal. 

There  is  no  reliable  published  data  upon  which  to  base 
estimates  of  the  extent  of  the  cattle  and  sheep  business  pre- 
vious to  the  Civil  War,  but  those  who  have  had  intimate  con- 
tact with  the  business  seem  to  think  that  in  the  days  of 
slavery  the  South  was  well  adapted  to  cattle  and  sheep  rais- 
ing, because  the  labor  could  be  made  efficient.  Thus  all  of 
the  attention  necessary  to  the  profitable  conduct  of  this  busi- 
ness in  connection  with  cotton  farming  could  be  commanded. 
But  with  the  emancipated  negro  labor,  it  is  not  possible  to 
realize  more  than  80  per  cent,  efficiency  of  labor,  and  hence 
80  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the  farm  feeding  stuffs.  Thus 
cotton  seed  meal  and  hulls  must  be  brought  in  to  supply  this 
deficiency.  But  notwithstanding  the  enforced  purchase  of 
this  extra  material —  or  even  with  the  purchase  of  the  entire 
feeds — cattle  may  be  raised  with  good  profit  in  most  of  the 
cotton  growing  region. 


384  CATTLE    FEEDING. 

The  best  breeds  of  beef  are  short-horns  ar.d  Kerefords. 

Considerable  interest  has  recently  developed  in  the  North- 
west in  what  is  called  "baby  beef."  A  fine  breed  of  beef 
calf  is  fed  to  fatten  from  an  early  age,  then  sold  in  a  fatted 
condition  at  a  younger  age  than  usual.  The  result  is  said 
to  be  very  tender  and  excellent  beef  at  even  le;s  cost  than  by 
the  old  method  of  waiting  one  or  two  years  before  com- 
mencing to  fatten. 

Dairy  Cattle. 

Some  experiments  in  feeding  dairy  cattle  on  cotton  seed 
meal  and  hulls  have  erroneously  lead  to  conclusions  adverse 
to  the  use  of  these  materials  for  this  purpose.  These  con- 
clusions were  hastily  reached  in  regions  where  other  feeding 
stuffs  were  plentiful  and  cheap,  and  more  agreeable  at  first 
to  the  taste  of  the  cattle.  This  relates  mostly  to  the  use  of 
cotton  seed  hulls.  The  feeding  value  of  cotton  seed  meal 
has  now  become  universally  recognized,  and  it  is  known 
that  it  is  one  of  the  very  best  of  feeds,  price  and  results  con- 
sidered. It  is,  of  course,  important  for  every  dairyman, 
who  owns  a  farm,  to  utilize  all  the  home  feeding  stuffs;  but 
in  the  South,  it  is  generally  most  profitable  to  supplement 
them  with  the  cotton  seed  products.  In  competing  in  the 
markets  of  the  world  for  beef  and  dairy  products,  it  seems 
evident  that  the  South's  opportunity  lies  in  the  intelligent 
use  of  the  cotton  seed  meal  and  hulls. 


CATTLE    FEEDING.  387 

The  following  estimates  shew  a  series  of  results  (all  ex- 
pressed in  round  numbers)  obtainable  from  one  milk  cow, 
under  various  conditions : 

ILL  BREEDING.— ILL  FEEDING.— ILL  CARE. 

Yield  per  year,  milk 2,000  lbs 

Or  butter 100  lbs 

This  would  be  inferior  butter,  not  bringing  over  20  cents 
per  pound,  so  that  the  income  from  butter  would  be  $20. 
This  condition  may  be  said  to  represent  the  average  of  North 
Carolina. 

FAIR  BREEDING.— FAIR  FEEDING.— FAIR  CARE. 

Yield  per  year,  milk 4,000  lbs 

Or  butter 200  lbs 

This  butter  would  be  better,  and  would  sell  fcr  say  25 
cents  per  pound,  making  the  income  from  butter  $50.  This 
condition  about  represents  the  average  of  New  York  State. 

SUPERIOR  BREEDING.— SUPERIOR  FEEDING.— 
SUPERIOR  CARE. 

Yield  per  year,  milk 10,000  lbs 

Or  butter 500  lbs 

This  butter  would  be  worth  about  30  cents  per  pound, 
making  the  income  $150. 

This  represents  a  good  average  condition  as  now  existing 
in  Germany. 

MAXIMUM  BREEDING.— MAXIMUM   FEEDING.— 
MAXIMUM  CARE. 

Yield  per  year,  milk i5>000  lbs 

Or  butter 7z°  lbs 

This  butter  at  30  cents  per  pound  would  make  the  income 

$225. 


388  CATTLE    FEEDING. 

The  above  yields  are  not  by  any  means  impossible.  They 
have  even  been  excelled.  There  is  one  record  in  Germany 
of  a  cow  weighing  1,100  pounds,  producing  in  one  year 
17,500  pounds  of  milk,  making  875  pounds  of  butter. 

The  same  conditions  which  conduce  to  large  yields  also 
tend  to  make  better  values  for  the  products.  The  first  es- 
sential is  a  good  breed  for  the  purpose,  the  next  is  proper 
feed,  and  the  next,  but  by  no  means  the  least  important,  is 
proper  and  intelligent  care  of  the  animal.  This  includes 
proper  housing,  kind  treatment,  and  an  abundant  supply  of 
pure  water. 

The  best  breed  for  yield  of  butter  is  the  Jersey  or  the 
Guernsey ;  the  best  for  quantity  of  milk  is  the  Holstein  or 
Ayrshire.  These  have  been  specially  bred  for  the  purposes 
mentioned,  and  may  generally  be  relied  upon  for  these  re- 
spective purpose. 

Profitable  Yield. 

The  question  as  to  what  is  a  profitable  and  what  is  an  un- 
profitable yield  of  milk  or  butter  for  dairy  cows,  is  neces- 
sarily one  that  involves  many  factors  and  these  factors  all 
vary.  The  best  that  can  be  done  in  giving  a  definite  answer 
is  to  give  figures  based  upon  average  conditions.  The  fol- 
lowing figures  give  what  may  be  considered  average  profit- 
table  yields  in  the  localities  stated  : 

In  North  Carolina,  3,000  pounds  milk  or  150  pounds  but- 
ter per  year. 

In  New  York  State,  4,000  pounds  milk  or  200  pounds  but- 
ter per  year. 

In  Germany,  5,000  pounds  milk  or  250  pounds  butter  per 
year. 

If  these  figures  are  correct,  then  the  return  from  the  cat- 
tle in  North  Carolina  now  is  not  profitable. 

With  cotton  seed  hulls  and  meal  as  feeding  stuffs  supple- 
mented by  present  farm  products,  and  with  good  breeding 
and  good  care,  the  German  yields  might  be  equaled. 

If  this  could  be  done,  then  the  dairy  business  in  North 


CATTLE    FEEDING.  397 

Carolina,  which  is,  as  a  rule,  now  unprofitable,  might  be 
made  superior  to  that  of  New  York  State  as  now  conducted, 
and  equal  to  that  of  Germany  as  now  conducted. 

What  is  here  said  about  the  dairy  business  in  North  Caro- 
lina is  equally  applicable  to  most  of  the  other  cotton-grow- 
ing States.  This  entire  discussion  is  based  upon  the  idea 
that  cotton  seed  meal  and  hulls  make  in  nearly  all  parts  of 
the  cotton-growing  States  ample  opportunity  for  profitable 
business  in  raising  and  fattening  beef  and  in  producing  milk 
and  butter. 

The  climate  in  the  cotton-growing  area  is  very  favorable 
to  all  forms  of  cattle  business.  There  must  always  be  a 
certain  amount  of  warmth  supplied  to  cattle.  If  the 
weather  is  cold,  the  warmth  must  be  supplied  by  food,  and 
such  food  as  is  adapted  to  the  purpose. 

Cow  Lot  Manure. 

In  all  dealings  with  cattle,  whether  keeping  them  for  beef 
or  for  dairy  products,  provision  should  be  made  to  utilize 
the  manure.  Besides  the  fertilizing  values  in  cow  manure 
for  increasing  production,  this  particular  manure  has  in  some 
way,  not  understood,  the  power  of  improving  the  length, 
strength  and  fineness  of  the  staple  of  cotton. 

It  is  said  that  in  the  production  of  mushrooms,  even  when 
all  other  conditions  are  favorable,  when  leaf  mould  and  horse 
manure  is  used,  the  result  is  indifferent ;  when  using  cattle 
manure,  the  result  is  still  indifferent ;  but  when  the  two  are 
mixed,  the  results  in  prolific  yields,  is  little  less  than  wonder- 
ful. So,  in  some  way.,  not  fully  understood,  cattle  manure, 
when  mixed  with  other  manures  improves  the  quality  of  the 
cotton  fibres  produced.  The  use  of  commercial  or  chemi- 
cal fertilizers  alone,  as  compared  with  the  use  of  barn-yard 
manures,  (either  alone  or  in  combination),  tends  in  some 
measure  to  degenerate — or  at  least  not  to  improve — the  qual- 
ity of  the  cotton  crop.  Chemical  fertilizers  are  clean,  and 
therefore  more  agreeable  to  handle.     They  also  contain  con- 


39^  CATTLE    FEEDING. 

centrated  plant  food,  and  in  many  cases  are  necessary  to  get 
large  yields,  and  maintain  soil  fertility. 

The  development  of  the  business  of  making  commercial 
fertilizers  has  been  of  immense  advantage  to  the  cotton  pro- 
ducing interests ;  but  it  has  also  been  productive  of  some 
harm  in  making  the  farmers  less  careful  about  saving  and 
utilizing  home  manures.  It  is  manifestly  extravagant  to 
buy  commercial  fertilizers  when  heme  manures,  might,  by 
a  little  labor,  be  used  for  the  same  result;  and  this  is  accen- 
tuated when  it  is  considered  that  the  cotton  produced  by 
home  manures  tends  toward  better  qualities. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  indefinite  use  of  commercial  ferti- 
lizers would  not  permanently  increase,  or  even  maintain  soil 
fertility.     There  is  an  old  adage : 

"Lime  and  marl  without  manure. 

Will  make  both  farm  and  farmer  poor." 

This  applies  equally  as  well  to  any  kind  of  artificial  fertili- 
zer. This  view  of  the  matter  is  not  antagonistic  to  the 
makers  of  chemical  fertilizers.  The  prosperous  farmer  will 
always  want  more  fertilizers  to  mix  with  his  home  manures 
than  the  thriftless  farmer  will  who  relies  entirely  on  com- 
mercial fertilizers. 

Because  of  these  relations  of  the  cow  lot  manure  to  the 
other  fertilizers  used  for  the  production  of  cotton  the  de- 
velopment of  those  businesses  into  which  cattle  enter — the 
dairy  and  beef  interests — become  at  the  same  time  easier 
and  more  important. 

The  raising  and  handling  of  sheep  would  seem  to  be 
equally  easy,  attractive  and  profitable,  except  for  the  fact 
that  in  the  rural  districts,  where  cotton  is  produced,  a  dog 
seems  to  be  more  popular  than  a  sheep. 

Considering,  ( i )  the  values  that  have  been  found  in  cot- 
ton seed,  (2)  the  application  of  some  of  the;e  values  as  stock 
feed  in  producing  beef  and  dairy  pre  ducts,  (3)  the  values 
of  the  result  and  manures  in  producing  more  cotton,  better 
cotton  and  more  seed,   it  becomes  apparent  that  there  is 


<y  \Z>  w  v" 


/-oocy  > 'C/ofn/ng 

$6e/fer 


Fig.  123.     A  Cycle  of  Production,  Consumption  and  Land 
Restoration. 


4-00  CATTLE   FEEDING. 

a  cycle  of  operations,  out  of  which  come  valuable  products 
for  the  markets — human  food,  clothing  and  shelter — while 
all  residual  products  contribute  to  continue  and  even  ex- 
tend the  cycle  of  operations.  Based  upon  these  ideas,  there 
has  already  been  built  at  one  point  in  the'  South  a  compre- 
hensive plant  providing  for  the  following  operations : 
i.   Ginning  cotton. 

2.  Operating  an  oil  mill. 

3.  Operating  a  cotton  mill. 

4.  Mixing  fertilizers. 

5.  Feeding  cattle. 

With  the  addition  of  a  cotton  farm,  the  above  plant  would 
complete  the  whole  cycle  of  operations. 

In  this  cycle  of  operations,  a  number  of  products  are  be- 
ing constantly  drawn  out  for  the  uses  of  humanity,  and  the 
drafts  thus  made  upon  the  soil  replaced  by  products 
brought  from  the  mines  or  other  sources,  and  prepared 
chemically  to  take  the  place  of  the  withdrawn  elements. 

The  failure  to  save  the  residual  manures,  when  these  mar- 
ket products  are  consumed,  makes  the  necessity  for  the 
drawing  on  the  outside  sources  ( chemical  fertilizers)  much 
greater  than  it  should  be. 

The  diagram,  Fig.  123,  exhibits  the  working  of  this  cycle. 

Under  a  proper  system  of  agriculture  it  should  not  be 
necessary  to  rely  to  such  a  great  extent  upon  the  mines 
and  chemical  works  for  restoring  fertility  to  the  soils,  in  re- 
turn for  the  drafts  made  upon  it  by  humanity.  On  the  aver- 
age farm,  these  drafts  could  be  returned  to  the  soil  many 
fold  if  full  attention  is  paid  to  systems  of  rotation,  including 
leguminous  crops,  and  full  attention  to  the  conservation  of 
decomposing  vegetation  in  fields  and  wooded  lands.  Large 
amounts  of  this  are  now  annually  wasted.  The  stable  and 
barn  yard  manures  that  are  now  allowed  to  dissipate  could 
be  made  to  yield  large  returns,  especially  when  used  in  con- 
junction with  commercial  fertilizers  to  increase  their  ag- 
ricultural values.  The  question  of  how  much  commercial 
fertilizer  to  use  in  connection  with  the  home  manures  is  one 


CATTLE    FEEDING.  4©1 

of  costs  and  values  of  products.  Every  farmer  ought  to 
save  more  home  manure  than  he  now  does,  and  ought  also  to 
buy  more  fertilizer  than  he  usually  does.  The  average  cot- 
ton farmer  has  time  and  to  spare  to  do  the  first ;  the  money 
he  would  put  into  the  second  would,  in  combination  with 
the  first,  make  ample  return  in  more  yield  and  finer  quality 
than  ever  before. 

It  is  said  that  the  civilization  of  any  community  may  be 
measured  by  the  consumption  of  sulphuric  acid.  Meas- 
ured by  this  standard,  the  southeastern  United  States 
would  probably  surpass  any  other  part  of  the  world.  That 
this  is  not  true  is  well  known.  Unusual  activity  in  the  pro- 
duction of  cotton,  and  the  extension  of  the  fertilizer  business 
to  keep  pace  with  it,  has  caused  an  abnormal  production  of  ' 
sulphuric  acid  in  this  section.  If  other  conditions  of  civili- 
zation could  be  brought  up  to  the  level  of  the  consumption 
of  this  commodity,  then  the  above  measure  would  be  correct. 
This  would  involve  the  preservation  and  use  of  horn z 
manures  to  an  extent  proportional  to  the  commercial  ferti- 
lizers, and  would  involve  the  growth  of  other  manufactures 
and  arts  up  to  the  point  of  normally  consuming  the  sulphu- 
ric acid  now  manufactured.  When  these  proportions  shall 
have  been  adjusted,  then  it  may  be  said  that  the  civilization 
of  the  Southern  States  of  America  may  be  measured  by  their 
consumption  of  sulphuric  acid. 

Domestic  Use  of  Meal  and  Hulls  Outside  the  Cotton  Grow- 
ing States. 

The  values  in  cotton  seed  meal  as  a  stock  feed  are 
sufficient  to  warrant  its  shipment  to,  and  profitable  use  in  any 
part  of  the  United  States.  Great  quantities  go  to  many 
parts  of  the  United  States  outside  of  the  cotton-growing 
area,  and  its  value  has  become  well  known,  especially  in  New 
England  and  other  Atlantic  coast  States. 

The  hull  cannot  be  profitably  sent  so  far,  but  many  of  the 
oil  mills  prepare  a  food  made  up  of  about  5-6ths  hulls  and 
i -6th  meal,  and  find  extensive  sale  for  this,  in  sacks,  in  many 


402  CATTLE    FEEDING. 

of  the  Northern  States.  The  hulls  alone  are  put  up  in  com- 
pressed bales,  and  in  this  form  are  extensively  shipped 
to  adjacent  Northern  States. 

Exports. 

The  cotton  seed  meal  is  very  extensively  exported  f<_r  use 
as  cattle  feed.  Germany  takes  very  large  qua  titles,  in  the 
shape  of  finely  ground  meal.  Most  of  what  formerly  went  to 
England  was  in  form  of  the  cake,  as  it  comes  from  the  press. 
This  cake  was  cracked  with  a  hammer  or  other  suitable  in- 
strument, and  the  broken  pieces  fed  to  the  stock.  Now  the 
demand  is  for  more  meal  and  less  cake.  Those  familiar  with 
the  subject  consider  the  ground  meal  much  the  best  form  for 
feeding. 

The  hulls  are  too  cheap  and  bulky  to  export. 

Assuming  that  by  the  use  of  cotton  seed  hulls  and  meal,  a 
large  and  profitable  business  in  beef  and  dairy  cattle  can  be 
developed,  there  will  naturally  come  about  other  businesses 
supplementary  to  these,  as  for  example,  in  hides,  horns, 
tallow,  glue,  lard,  candles,  etc. 

The  values  of  lands  would  increase,  because  of  demand 
for  pasturage,  and  of  increased  crops  made  by  the  full  use  of 
stable  and  cow  lot  manure.  Oil  mills  could  be  more  profit- 
ably operated,  because  of  the  better  and  nearer  markets  for 
their  products  in  hulls  and  meal. 

The  agricultural  experiment  stations  of  the  various  cotton 
growing  and  some  other  States,  have  very  full  data  in  the 
shape  of  bulletins  relating  to  the  digestibility  of  hulls  and 
meal,  and  to  the  experimental  and  theoretical  values  of  these 
for  fattening  beef  and  for  the  production  of  milk  and  butter. 
These  are  sent  free  to  any  one  who  may  wish  to  pursue  the 
subject  in  detail. 

In  the  appendix  of  this  book  may  be  found  some  tables 
and  other  literature  on  this  subject,  which  have  been  com- 
piled from  these  and  other  sources. 


CATTLE    FEEDING.  403 

Splenetic  or  Texas  Fever. 

Without  undertaking  to  enter  into  any  general  discussion 
of  diseases  of  cattle,  it  would  seem  desirable  to  call  attention 
to  Texas  fever,  with  a  synopsis  of  the  government  regula- 
tions in  the  matter  of  quarantine  against  this  disease. 

In  shipping  cattle  from  the  Southern  States  to  Northern 
markets,  across  the  quarantine  line,  all  quarantine  regula- 
tions must  be  complied  with.  This  quarantine  line  runs 
across  the  entire  United  States,  reaching  at  some  points  well 
to  the  southward,  and  at  others  far  to  the  north.  The  map 
in  the  back  of  this  book  shows,  approximately,  the  present 
location  of  this  line.  The  location  of  the  line  is  frequently 
changed,  and  hence  this  map  must  not  be  relied  upon  to  rep- 
resent the  exact  line  at  all  times.  The  United  States  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry  issues  new  maps  from  time  to  time,  to- 
gether with  bulletins,  containing  revised  rules  for  the  trans- 
portation of  cattle  north  across  the  line. 

The  present  rules  allow  cattle  to  be  shipped  North  across 
the  line  only  for  immediate  slaughter,  and  even  then  only 
under  certain   regulations,   about  as   follows : 

All  cars  or  boats  carrying  such  cattle  shall  bear  printed 
placards  with  letters  i^  inches  high,  stating  that  the  cars  or 
boats  contain  Southern  cattle.  All  conductors'  way  bills, 
etc.,  must  have  the  same  information  plainly  stamped  across 
the  face.  No  boat  carrying  Southern  cattle  shall  receive  on 
board  any  other  cattle  at  the  same  time. 

No  boat  shall  receive  cattle  to  transport  North  across  the 
line  to  any  point  not  provided  with  proper  pens,  etc.,  to 
receive  them  without  having  to  pass  over  a  public  highway, 
unless  permission  for  same  is  given  by  the  local  authorities. 

All  cars  and  boats  used  for  transportation,  after  unloading 
must  be  cleaned  and  disinfected  with  lime  and  carbolic  acid. 

When  cattle  are  unloaded  to  be  fed  or  watered  in  transit, 
they  must  be  put  in  pens  or  yards  set  apart  for  infected 
cattle.  No  other  cattle  are  to  be  admitted  to  these  pens  while 
so  occupied.  Pens  are  to  be  cleaned  and  disinfected  with 
lime  and  carbolic  acid,  after  the  cattle  have  been  moved.  The 
removed  litter  and  manure  is  also  to  be  disinfected. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

fertilisers. 

Before  agriculture  became  anything  of  a  science  in  the 
Southern  United  Slates,  the  cotton  crop  was  infinitely 
less  important  than  at  the  present  day.  The  Agricultu- 
ral Department  of  the  National  Government  knew  noth- 
ing of  the  subject  of  cotton  culture,  and  the  separate 
States  had  not  then  established  experiment  stations. 

Nothing  was  known  in  a  general  and  systematic  way  of 
the  theory  of  cotton  planting.  Each  planter  proceeded  ac- 
cording to  individual  ideas,  based  on  personal  experience. 
Fertilizing  cotton  w:.s  done  in  a  desultory  way,  with  the 
natural  materials  at  hand,  principally  stable  manure.  As 
this  material  was  entirely  inadequate  to  the  requirements, 
and  as  commercial  fertilizers  were  then  unknown,  the  cot- 
ton plant  was  never  sufficiently  nourished.  In  about 
1850,  Peruvian  guano  was  first  brought  to  notice  as  a  fer- 
tilizer. This  is  a  natural  guano,  formed  by  the  deposits 
of  birds  on  South  American  Islands.  It  was  at  that  time 
enormously  expensiv  -.,  compared  with  the  present  intrin- 
sic value  of  fertilizers.  It  was  soon  discovered  that  the 
use  of  this  guano  increased  the  yield  of  cotton  about  100 
per  cent.,  and,  as  the  price  of  cotton  was  then  relatively 
high,  its  use  was  attended  with  gieat  profit,  and  it  at- 
tained extensive  popularity  for  all  other  agriculture,  as 
well  as  for  cotton  planting.  This  soon  exhausted  the 
world's  available  supply,  and  chemists  began  to  experi- 
ment with  a  view  of  producing  substitutes.  They  dis- 
covered that  phosphoric  acid  was  the  principal  ingredient 
in  this  manure.  At  the  same  time  it  was  experimentally 
discovered  in  the  course  of  scientific  investigation  on  the 
farm,  that  phosphoric  acid  was  the  principal  requirement 
of  the  cotton  plant;  but  it  was  also  found  that  there  were 
necessary  to  the  proper  nourishment  of  the  cotton  plant, 
nitrogen  and  potash;  hence  there  was  soon  developed  an 


406  FERTILIZERS. 

immense  industry  In  producing  what  was  first  called  "ar- 
tificial fertilizers,"  all  embracing  in  a  more  or  less  empiri- 
cal proportion,  these  three  ingredients. 

Of  late  years,  this  subject  has  been  reduced  to  a  mathe- 
matical basis,  and  the  approximate  amount  of  each  ingre- 
dient necessary  in  the  production  of  the  cotton  plant  has 
been  accurately  tabulated.  The  method  of  discovering 
these  chemicals  is  obviously  (i)  to  determine  what  chem- 
icals are  contained  in  the  plant  itself; (2)  from  what  source 
these  chemicals  may  be  derived,  that  is:  whether  from  air, 
moisture  or  earth;  and,  since  air  and  moisture,  as  well 
as  some  other  properties  in  the  earth  are  supplied  by  na- 
ture; (3)  to  determine  what  earth  constituents  are  lacking 
in  certain  localities.  The  determination  of  the  first  mat- 
ter is  of  universal  application;  the  second  depends  upon 
local  conditions,  while  the  third  is  a  matter  principally  for 
intelligent  deduction. 


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408  FERTILIZERS. 

Table  XVI.  exhibits  the  respective  amounts  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  nitrogen  and  potash  contained  in  the  several 
parts  of  10,000  cotton  plants  which  produced  300  pounds 
of  lint  cotton  per  acre,  which  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  aver- 
age crop,  in  the  Southeastern  United  States.  This  bears 
no  exact  ratio  to  the  amount  of  these  chemicals  which 
should  be  added  to  the  soil  in  any  particular  locality,  from 
the  fact  that  nitrogen  is  largely  derived  from  the  air,  and 
that  the  other  elements  are  contained  in  a  greater  or  less 
degree  in  all  soils.  Furthermore,  the  application  of  any 
given  amount  of  these  chemicals  to  any  particular  soil, 
is  no  guarantee  thai  the  cotton  plant  will  take  them  up 
from  that  soil  in  any  prejudged  proportion.  The  table 
is  valuable,  however,  as  a  basis,  and  also  as  exhibiting 
the  amount  of  fertilizers  consumed  by  each  particular  di- 
vision of  the  plant.  It  exhibits,  for  instance,  that  lint 
cotton,  the  principal  commercial  article  for  which  the 
plant  is  grown,  actually  removes  from  the  soil  only  3  per 
cent,  of  the  total  amount  required  by  the  plant.  The 
seed,  which  is  also  in  most  localities  a  commercial  pro- 
duct, removes  35  per  cent.  This  shows  that  it  is  neces- 
sary in  estimating  the  commercial  value  of  the  seed  to  take 
into  account  the  money  value  of  the  fertilizing  chemi- 
cals which  it  carries  with  it.  It  also  prompts  the  inquiry, 
as  to  what  portion  of  this  seed  actually  covers  its  com- 
mercial value,  and  whether  that  particular  portion  in- 
volves any  of  the  fertilizing  chemicals.  The  principal 
value  of  seed  to  commerce  is  in  its  oil,  which  chemical  an- 
alysis shows  does  net  contain  the  fertilizing  chemicals. 
It  therefore  follows,  that  in  the  economy  of  cotton  plant- 
ing, if  seed  is  removed  from  the  soil,  arrangements  should 
be  made  to  return  the  fertilizing  elements  thereof.  It 
transpires  that  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton  seed  oil,  the 
fertilizing  residue  is  preserved  in  cotton  seed  m^al  and  is 
made  available  for  return  to  the  farm.  Its  principal  value 
is  in  its  nitrogen;  and,  as  will  be  hereafter  shown,  its  most 
economical  consumption  as  a  fertilizer  is  in  connection  with 
other  ingredients,  supplying  the  other  two  requisite  constitu- 
ents for  fertilizers. 


FERTILIZERS.  409 


TABLE  XVTL 

AMOUNT  OF  FERTILIZING  ELEMENTS  NECES- 
SARY TO  BE  SUPPLIED  TO  AVERAGE  SOIL  IN 
SOUTHEASTERN  UNITED  STATES  FOR  PRO- 
DUCTION OF  EACH  300  POUNDS  OF  LINT 
COTTON  PER  ACRE. 

Pounds  per  acre 

Phosphoric  acid  (P  2  O  5) 5° 

Nitrogen  (N)   20 

Potash  (K  2  O) 15 

Rotation  and  Diversification  of  Crops. 

Farming  is  a  business  having  many  different  phases,  cap- 
able of  correlation,  each  with  all  the  others.  In  most  prac- 
tice, the  rotation  of  crops  complementary  to  each  other,  the 
production  of  crops  and  live  stock  in  a  way  to  make  them 
complementary  to  each  other,  and  even  of  bringing  the  farm 
in  its  crop  and  live  stock  products  into  co-relation  with  the 
local  manufacturing  conditions  are  neglected.* 

While  cotton  may  be  successfully  grown  indefinitely  on 
the  same  piece  of  land,  this  is  only  possible  by  the  annual 
application  of  some  form  of  fertilizer.  In  order  to  make  the 
best  and  cheapest  restoration  of  the  land  there  should  be 
rotation  of  the  cotton  with  grain,  considerable  stock  with 
pasturage  and  leguminous  crops. 

In  the  ordinary  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  on  land  for 
cotton,  the  phosphoric  acid  tends  to  accumulate  in  the  soil, 
while  the  nitrogen  tends  to  diminish. 

A  grain  crop  following  a  cotton  crop  utilizes  plant  food 
in  the  soil  to  best  advantage:  (1)  It  makes  pasture,  (2)  it 
fills  in  with  a  good  crop  what  would  otherwise  be  a  gap  in 
the  rotation. 

*  See  Cotton  Mill,  Commercial  Features,  Chap    XV.  "Farm  and  Factory." 


4IO  FERTILIZERS. 

Cowpeas  and  clover  draw  nitrogen  from  the  air,  storing 
it  on  an  average  10  per  cent,  in  the  roots,  40  per  cent,  in  the 
stems  and  leaves,  and  50  per  cent,  in  the  peas.  The  pea  hulls 
contain  practically  no  nitrogen.  When  a  pea  crop  is  raised, 
the  most  value  is  obtained :  (  1 )  By  cutting  the  crop  for  hay, 
feeding  it  to  cattle  and  other  stock  and  returning  the  stock 
manure  to  the  land,  or  by  pasturing  stock  on  it ;  ( 2 )  by  turn- 
ing the  whole  crop  under.  If  the  peas  are  picked  off  and  the 
plant  turned  under,  about  half  the  nitrogen  value  of  the  crop 
is  given  to  the  land. 

If  the  crop  is  mowed  and  cured  for  hay,  and  the  roots  and 
residual  stems  and  leaves  plowed  under,  about  25  per  cent, 
of  the  nitrogen  value  of  the  crop  is  returned  to  the  land. 

Many  farmers  have  an  idea  that  nitrogen  taken  from  the 
air  is  stored  by  leguminous  crops  in  the  roots,  and  that 
the  crop  may  be  cut  and  cured  for  forage  without  sacrifice 
of  the  nitrogen  value  of  the  crop  to  the  land.  This  is  an 
error.  Leguminous  crops  furnish  nitrogen  to  the  soil  very 
much  cheaper  than  it  can  be  procured  in  any  other  way.  It 
is  practically  the  only  way  a  cotton  farmer  can  afford  to  put 
on  enough  nitrogen  to  make  profitable  crops  and  keep  up  his 
land.  Most  farmers  know  this,  but  don't  prac-ice  it.  Whe  1 
the  practice  does  become  general,  a  revolution  in  the  produc- 
tion of  cotton  will  have  been  accomplished. 

Soil  Requirements- 
Table  XVII.  exhibits  from  experimental  data,  the 
actual  amounts  of  fertilizing  chemicals  which  should  be 
applied  to  the  soils  above  alluded  to,  for  the  maximum  re- 
sults in  the  production  of  the  afore-mentioned  300  pounds 
of  lint  per  acre. 

This  table  is  based  on  a  soil  which,  from  its  nature,, 
could  not  profitably  yield  more  than  the  above  amount. 
The  table,  however,  may  be  used  in  the  same  proportions 
for  soils  more  productive  than  this.  Just  the  maximum 
yield  of  lint  cotton,  which  it  may  be  profitable  to  force 
from  a  given  area,  must  be  determined  by  actual  experi- 


FERTILIZERS.  411 

ment  on  the  particular  soil  in  question.  If  it  is  found 
that  double  the  stated  yield  can  be  profitably  forced,  then 
the  quantities  shown  in  Table  XVII.  must  be  doubled  to 
produce  that  yield  at  the  minimum  cost.  But  even  the 
use  of  this  table  must  be  tempered  with  judgment,  as  to 
the  general  character  of  the  soil,  both  chemically  and 
physically.  It  has  been  found  by  experiment  that  the 
three  ingredients,  to  produce  the  best  results,  must  be  ap- 
plied in  a  mixture  with  proper  proportions  of  each.  Any 
one  of  the  three  may  be  of  benefit  to  the  cotton  plant  if 
applied  separately,  but  the  three  applied  as  a  mixture  will 
produce  a  result  greater  than  the  sum  of  the  results  from 
each  of  the  three  applied  separately. 

Having  determined  that  certain  amounts  of  phosphoric 
acid,  nitrogen  and  potash  are  essential  in  the  complete 
cotton  fertilizer,  the  question  arises  as  to  the  best  sources 
from  which  they  may  be  procured.  This  question  is 
easily  answered  in  the  United  States  by  the  various  com- 
peting fertilizer  manufacturers,  all  of  whom  manufacture 
in  available  forms,  fertilizers  containing  the  ingredients  in 
proper  proportions.  Under  the  care  exercised  by  State 
boards  of  control,  and  agricultural  stations,  the  farmer  can- 
not go  far  wrong  in  accepting  the  commercial  fertilizers 
offered  for  sale  in  his  own  State.  It  may  be  well,  however, 
to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  there  is  some  difference  in 
the  agricultural  value  of  the  fertilizing  chemicals,  due  to  the 
source  from  which  they  are  derived.  The  analyses  as  pub- 
lished and  branded  on  the  sacks  are  always  careful  to  differ- 
entiate the  soluble  from  insoluble  phosphoric  acid,  so  that  in 
this  respect,  it  is  easy  to  select  the  best.  All  forms  of  nitro- 
gen in  commercial  fertilizers  are  soluble,  and  hence  no  differ- 
ence has  been  specified  in  the  standard  analysis.  But  there 
are  differences  in  the  rapidity  of  solution,  among  the  various 
forms  in  which  nitrogen  is  supplied.  For  this  reason,  it  is 
important  for  the  farmer  to  ascertain  what  form  of  nitrogen 
he  is  buying.  For  example,  the  nitrogen  from  nitrate  of 
soda  is  so  quickly  soluble  that  it    leaches    away  before    the 


412  FERTILIZERS. 

cotton  plant  can  utilize  it  all.  This  is  a  valuable  form  of 
nitrogen  for  some  plants,  such  as  early  vegetables,  where 
quick  growth  is  desirable,  but  is  not  recommended  for  cotton. 
Sulphate  of  ammonia  and  dried  blood  are  good  sources  of 
nitrogen,  though  some  think  not  so  good  as  cotton  seed  meal, 
which  is  less  readily  soluble,  and  hence  is  good  to  give  out 
the  nitrogen  as  the  growing  plant  requires  it.  Tankage  is 
variable  in  composition,  and  solubility,  but  is  apt  to  be  too 
slow  of  solution. 


FERTILIZERS. 


413 


TABLE  XVIII. 

COMMERCIAL  SOURCE  OF  THE  FERTILIZING 
CHEMICALS,  SHOWING  AVERAGE  PER  CENT. 
OF  ACTIVE  PRINCIPLE  IN  EACH. 


Phosphoric 

Nitrogen 

Potash 

Equivalent 
Ammonia 
per  cent. 

Acid  per  cent. 

per  cent. 

percent 

Acid  Phosphate  .    .    . 

15.OO 

Boneblack 

18.OO 

Sulphate    Ammonia  . 

20.50 

24.89 

Nitrate  Soda  .... 

I5-75 

19.12 

Cotton  Seed  Meal  .    . 

2-75 

7.00 

1-75 

850 

Cotton   Seed    .... 

1.30 

2.50 

I  20 

3°4 

Stable    Manure  .    .    . 

•25 

.  zo 

•5° 

.61 

Cotton   Hull    Ashes  . 

9.00 

22.50 

Wood    Ashes  .... 

i-75 

600 

Muriate  Potash  .    .    . 

50.00 

Sulphate    Potash    .    . 

50.00 

Kainit 

12.00 

Table  XVIII.  exhibits  these  sources,  together  with  the  per 
centage  possessed  by  each.  The  manner  of  building  up 
a  fertilizer  in  any  given  ratio  may  be  easily  computed  from 
this  table  by  selecting  the  most  available  sources  in  any 
particular  locality.  The  following  examples  will  exhibit 
more  clearly  the  utility  of  this  table. 


-M4  FERTILIZERS. 

flaking  Fertilizers. 

To  produce  a    fertilizer    containing    in    a    given    gross 
weight : 

Phosphoric  acid 50  lbs. 

Nitrogen 20  lbs 

Potash 15  lbs. 


EXAMPLE  1. 

Acid  phosphate 333  lbs.   (x.       .15=150  lbs.) 

Sulphate  ammonia    98  lbs.   (x.  20.50=20  lbs.) 

Muriate  potash 30  lbs.   (x.       .50=15  lbs.) 


Weight  of  mixture 461  lbs. 

Entire  mixture   would  analyze: 

Phosphoric  acid 11.8  per  cent 

Nitrogen    (equivalent  ammonia   5.2) 4.3  per  cent 

Potash 3.3  per  cent 


EXAMPLE  2 

Acid  phosphate 281   lbs 

Cotton  seed  meal 286  lbs 

Kainit    97  lbs 


Weight  of  mixture 664  lbs 

Entire  mixture  would  analyze: 

Phosphoric  acid 7.5   per  cent 

Nitrogen    (equivalent  ammonia   3.6) 3.0  per  cent 

Potash 2.3  per  cent 


FERTILIZERS.  415 

Transportation  of  Fertilizers. 

It  will  readily  be  seen  from  these  examples  how  an  in- 
finite number  of  changes  may  be  made,  with  the  com- 
mercial sources  named  to  produce  any  desired  ratio  of 
fertilizing  chemicals.  In  computing  the  ultimate  cost  of 
any  mixture,  the  cost  of  transportation  from  market  to 
farm  assumes  considerable  importance.  It  will  be  seen 
that  in  Example  1,  the  .required  amount  of  fertilizing 
chemicals  is  contained  in  a  mixture  weighing  461  pounds, 
while  in  example  2  a  smaller  result  requires  a  mixture 
weighing  664  pounds,  nearly  50  per  cent,  heavier.  There- 
fore, if  the  transportation  per  pound  were  the  same  in 
each  case,  that  part  of  the  cost  would  be  50  per  cent, 
greater  in  one  case  than  in  the  other.  It  follows  in  gen- 
eral, that  where  transportation  is  of  any  consequence,  the 
fertilizers  having  highest  percentage  of  ingredients  are 
most  desirable. 

Table  XVIII.,  while  giving  the  commercial  sources  of 
fertilizing  chemicals  does  not  fully  indicate  the  sources 
in  nature  from  which  these  commercial  articles  originate. 
It  may  be  of  value  to  briefly  refer  to  some  of  these  ori- 
ginal sources. 

Acid  phosphate  is  commonly  derived  from  fossilized 
rock,  found  in  many  places  on  the  sea-coast  and  some- 
times in  the  interior,  at  places  supposed  to  have  been  orig- 
inally covered  by  the  ocean.  This  lock  is  believed  to  be 
the  petrified  remains  of  fishes  and  other  marine  animals. 
This  rock  is  mined,  dried  and  ground  into  fine  powder, 
and  treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  which  renders  the  phos- 
phoric acid  soluble. 

There  are  other  sources  of  phosphoric  acid,  such  as 
Thomas  slag  (50  per  cent,  available)  and  bone  meal  (20  per 
cent,  available).  It  has  been  abundantly  proved  by  experi- 
ment that  phosphoric  acid,  to  benefit  a  cotton  p'ant,  must 
be  soluble,  so  that  the  plant  may  avail  itself  of  the  total 
amount  applied  each  season.  There  is  current  in  some 
localities,  a  popular  idea  that  the  less  soluble  forms  are  valu- 


416  FERTILIZERS. 

able  for  their  lasting  qualities  in  making  the  ground  perma- 
nently rich ;  but  such  supposition  is  not  sustained  by  the 
facts,  from  a  commercial  point  of  view. 

Nitrate  of  soda  is  a  natural  product,  mined  in  some  parts 
of  South  America. 

Cotton  seed  meal  is  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture 
of  oil  from  cotton  seed. 

Kainit  is  a  natural  product  mined  in  Germany. 

The  names  of  other  items  in  the  table  mostly  suggest 
their  origin. 

While  the  value  of  fertilizing  the  cotton  plant  is  an  ac- 
knowledged axiom,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  ul- 
timate value  depends  upon  moisture,  natural  or  artificial.  It 
is  impossible  for  any  plant  to  assimilate  any  fertilizer  in  the 
solid  state,  and  hence  it  is  essential  ( i )  that  the  fertilizer 
should  be  soluble,  either  in  water  or  by  action  of  plant  roots 
in  presence  of  moisture,  (2)  that  there  should  be  moisture 
sufficient  for  their  solution,  (3)  that  this  moisture  should 
not  be  so  abundant  as  to  wash  the  fertilizers  out  of  the 
reach  of  the  plants. 

With  the  proper  understanding  of  the  subject,  excellent 
results  in  making  fertilizers  may  be  attained  on  the  farm, 
without  the  use  of  any  machinery  whatever.  From  Table 
XVIII.  may  be  selected  a  list  of  materials  which  are  the 
cheapest  or  most  available  for  the  locality.  From  the  analy- 
sis it  is  easy  to  compute  the  quantities  required  to  produce  a 
fertilizer  of  any  desired  composition.  These  may  be  thor- 
oughly mixed  by  weighing  out  the  ingredients  and  scattering 
them  in  thin,  layers,  one  after  another  in  a  bin  on  the  floor, 
and  then  mixing  them  all  together  with  a  hoe  or  rake. 

There  is  generally  a  considerable  saving  to  the  farmer  in 
thus  mixing  his  own  fertilizers.  He  would  save  the  profit  of 
the  fertilizer  factory,  and  in  most  cases  the  profits  of  middle- 
men, and  save  something  in  freight  and  hauling.  At  first 
sight  it  might  seem  that  the  items  of  transportation  would 
be  the  same,  whether  the  materials  were  bought  separately  or 
bought  ready  mixed ;  but  there  are  several  causes  which  con- 


FERTILIZERS.  41 


tribute  to  making-  a  difference.  In  the  first  place,  the  average 
commercial  fertilizer  is  in  dilute  form.  The  average  analysis 
is  approximately : 

Per  cent.  Pounds  per  ton 

Phosphoric  acid 9  180 

Ammonia  (  from  nitrogen) 3  6o 

Potash    2  40 

Total  weight  of  active  principle.  .    14  283 

There  is  no  serious  fault  to  be  found  with  this  analysis. 
from  the  standpoint  of  plant-food.  The  best  results  in  fee  1- 
ing  plants,  (as  well  as  animals),  obtain  when  the  actual 
nutritive  ingredients  are  in  dilute  form.  But  it  is  highly 
wasteful  to  pay  for  freighting  and  hauling  2.000  pounds,  to 
get  280  pounds  of  plant  food.  If  it  were  practicable  for  the 
farmer  to  obtain  the  280  pounds  in  a  pure  state,  he  could 
dilute  it  with  dirt  up  to  2,coo  pounds  and  have  a  fertilizer 
equally  as  good  as  before,  and  at  the  same  time  save  86  per 
cent,  of  the  cost  of  transportation.  But  the  cost  per  pound 
of  the  chemicals  is  somewhat  greater,  the  more  enncentra  ed 
the  form,  and  hence  the  particular  form  in  which  to  buy 
them,  is  a  matter  to  be  considered  in  each  case  on  the  basis  of 
the  current  market  values  and  the  cost  of  transportation. 

Most  farms  in  the  cotton-growing  area  are  able  to  obtain 
cotton  seed  meal  from  local  oil  mills,  and  would  thus  use  that 
as  a  cheap  source  of  ammonia.  The  use  of  cattle  manure  in 
connection  with  other  ingredients,  helps  in  keeping  down  the 
cost. 

If  systematic  attention  is  paid  to  saving  cattle  manure, 
especiallv  in  cases  where  cattle  raising  is  made  part  of  the 
farm  programme,  there  can  be  almost  enough  nitrogen  pro- 
duced at  home  to  make  all  fertilizers.  As  this  is  the  most 
expensive  item  in  fertilizers,  it  is  highly  important  to  arrange- 
the  whole  farming  system  with  reference  to  this  point. 

The  manner  of  collecting  and  preserving  cattle  manure 


4J8  FERTILIZERS. 

deserves  some  consideration.  When  cattle  are  fed  in  open 
fields,  the  manure  can  be  most  cheaply  utilized  by  trans- 
ferring the  cattle,  and  cultivating  the  land.  If  cattle  are  fed 
in  pens,  the  manure  should  he  piled  into  compact  masses,  ai:d 
kept  moist.  The  less  contact  it  has  with  air.  the  better.  The 
use  of  cut  straw  and  other  litter  helps  absorb  and  preserve 
the  liquid  manure.  If  the  animals  lie  on  the  manure  or 
trample  it  down,  it  serves  the  same  good  purpose  as  other- 
wise compacting  it.  But  in  such  cases,  the  manure  should 
be  utilized  as  soon  as  the  animals  are  removed,  or  it  would 
become  dry  and  otherwise  deteriorate. 

The  mixing  of  acid  phosphate  with  stable  manure  serves 
the  double  purpose  of  preserving  its  qualities,  and  of  making 
a  proper  fertilizer.  About  2  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  per 
day  per  head  of  cattle  is  a  good  rough  rule.  In  making  any 
kind  of  home  mixture,  the  combination  of  lime  or  ashes  with 
acid  phosphate  should  be  avoided.  This  would  tend  to  make 
the  phosphoric  acid  insoluble. 

The  analysis  of  most  commercial  fertilizers  contains  the 
item  "ammonia,"  while  some  contain  the  item  "nitrogen" 
instead.  Ammonia  is  composed  of  nitrogen  14  pounds, 
hydrogen,  3  pounds.  It  is  easy  in  all  computations  to  con- 
vert one  to  the  other  by  the  use  of  this  proportion.  Nitrogen 
is  the  element  that  costs  money.  The  hydrogen  is  derived 
from  water.  A  fertilizer  said  to  contain  3  per  cent,  am- 
monia, may  also  be  said  to  contain  (  fourteen-seventeenths  of 
3)  2.48  per  cent,  nitrogen,  and  vice  versa. 

To  produce  a  fertilizer  having  any  given  analysis,  say : 

Per  cent.  Pounds  per  ton 

Phosphoric   acid 9  180 

Ammonia 3  60 

Potash    2  40 

A  variety  of  mixtures  might  be  made,  as  per  examples 
given  below,  using  the  analysis  given  in  Table  XVIII. 

The  number  of  pounds  of  each  ingredient    is    found    by 


FERTILIZERS.  419 

dividing  the  amount  of  chemical  required  by  the  percentage 
composition  of  the  ingredient. 

If  180  pounds  phosphoric  acid  is  required,  and  the  phos- 
phate contains  15  per  cent.,  the  amount  of  phosphate  re- 
quired is  180-^.15=1,200  pounds. 

EXAMPLE  I. 

Acid   phosphate    (  18CK-.15  ) 1,200  lbs 

Cotton   seed  meal    (60-=-. 0850) 700  lbs 

Muriate   potash    (40-^.50) 80  lbs 

Adulterant 20  lbs 


2,000  lbs 


This  table  does  not  give  exactly  correct  results  for  the 
reason  that  cotton  seed  meal  contains  (besides  ammonia) 
small  amounts  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  which  for  sim- 
plicity have  in  this  case  been  neglected. 

The  adulterant  might  be  omitted,  in  which  case  the  analy- 
sis would  run  higher  in  all  the  items. 

EXAMPLE  II. 

Acid  phosphate   ( 180-K15)    1,200  lbs. 

Sulphate   ammonia    (60-=-.  2489) 240  lbs 

Kainit  (40-T-.12) 333  lbs 

Adulterant 22J  lbs 

2,000  lbs 


420  FERTILIZERS. 


EXAMPLE  III. 

Acid  phosphate    ( 180-K15) 1,200  lbs 

Sulphate   ammonia    (60-K2489) 240  lbs 

Muriate  potash    (40-r-.5o) 8o  lbs 

Adulterant    480  lbs 


2,003    lbs 


A  popular  and  cheap  mixture  is  : 

Acid  phosphate 1200  pounds 

Cotton  seed  meal 600  pounds 

Kainit    200  pounds 

2000  pounds 

According  to  the  analysis  in  Table  XVIII.  the  contents  of 
the  mixture  would  be  : 

Phosphoric  acid 9.80  per  cent 

Ammonia    2.55  per  cent 

Potash     1.75  per  cent 

All  such  mixtures  as  the  above,  whether  home  made  or 
from  fertilizer  factory,  are  generally  known  as  "manipulated 
fertilizer,"  or  as  "ammoniated  fertilizer." 

Commercial  Value. 

Most  of  the  State  governments  issue  bulletins,  from  time 
to  time,  giving  the  market  value  of  the  fertilizing  chemicals, 
as  calculated  from  the  market  value  of  the  usual  crude 
materials  containing  them.  Thus  if  an  acid  phosphate  is 
sold  in  the  market  at  $12.00  per  ton,  and  analysis  shows  it 
to  contain  15  per  cent,  available  phosphoric  acid,  there  would 
be  300  pounds  phosphoric  acid  sold  for  $12.00,  which  would 


FERTILIZERS.  421 

make  a  valuation  of    phosphoric    acid  in    that    shape,  four 
cents  per  pound. 

The  average  values  assigned  to  these  chemicals  are  about 

as  follows : 

Phosphoric  acid .  .  .  . ' 4C  per  pound 

Nitrogen  (equivalent  to  ammonia,  ioc)  .  .  .    12c  per  pound 
Potash 4C  per  pound 

At  these  prices,  the  last  mentioned  mixture  would  contain 
chemicals  of  the  following  value  : 


Phosphoric  acid,  196  lbs.@4c $     7-84 

Nitrogen,  51  lbs.@i2c 6-12 

Potash,    35   lbs.@4c I4° 

Total   value $15-36 

By  referring  to  the  bulletin  valuations,  and  examining  the 
analysis  of  any  fertilizer,  it  is  easy  to  calculate  the  cost  of 
the  actual  ingredients,  and  thus  determine  whether  it  would 
pay  better  to  purchase  the  ready  mixed  fertilizer  at  the  price 
asked,  or  mix  an  equivalent  at  home. 

The  "commercial  value"  must  not  be  too  implicitly  relied 
upon  as  an  absolute  guide.  It  should  be  treated  as  giving  in- 
formation as  to  relative  values  of  different  fertilizers  offered 
for  sale.  The  "agricultural  value"  is,  of  course,  the  final 
test,  and  this  must  of  necessity  be  determined  by  actual  ex- 
periments with  any  given  fertilizer  for  a  given  crop  _  on  a 
given  piece  of  land.  Even  these  experiments  are  subject  to 
some  variation,  due  to  variations  in  the  rainfall  and  other 
weather  conditions. 

Mixing  Fertilizers  at  Oil  Mills. 

Cotton  seed  meal  forms  an  acceptable  ingredient  of  mixed 
fertilizers,  and  it  is,  therefore,  logical  that  the  oil  mill  should 
undertake    the   mixing    of    fertilizers  as  an  adjunct  to  the 


422  FERTILIZERS. 

business,  and  it  has  been  widely  and  profitably  done.  The 
cotton  seed  meal  may  be  delivered  in  bulk  by  conveyors  to 
the  mixing  room,  thus  saving  the  expense  of  sacking. 

The  mixing  machine  may  be  very  simple  and  inexpensive. 
It  has  even  been  profitably  done  by  hand,  using  a  hand  screen 
for  sifting  out  the  lumps. 

A  good  form  of  mixer  is  shown  in  Figure  124. 

Fertilizer  Hixer,   Fig.   124 — Lettering. 

A. — Hopper  to  receive  the  ingredients. 

B. — Elevator  belt  or  chain. 

C. — Elevator  cups. 

D. — Pulley  in  elevator  head. 

E. — Pulley  in  elevator  boot. 

F. — Material  going  into  mixer. 

G. — Ribs  of  revolving  reel. 

H. — Driving  gears. 

J. — Rolls  to  crush  lumps. 

K. — Knives  to  scrape  rolls. 

L. — Conveyor  to  take  mixed  fertilizer. 

M. — Spouts  to  hold  bags. 

N. — Gates  to  admit  the  fertilizer  to  either  spout  as  desired. 

Process. 

Have  adjacent  to  the  feeding  hopper  two  shallow  bins,  say 
10  feet  square  and  2  feet  deep.  Each  bin  will  hold  about  five 
tons.  Weigh  the  ingredients  into  one  of  the  bins,  one  or  tw<  > 
hundred  pounds  at  a  time,  according  to  the  formula  decided 
upon,  making  successive  layers  of  each  material.  When  bin 
is  full,  shovel  the  materials  out  (cutting  from  top  to  bottom 
of  layers)  into  hopper  of  the  machine. 

Elevator  delivers  the  material  into  revolving  reel,  which 
further  mixes  and  screens  it. 

The  uniformly  fine  mixture  is  hoppered  to  the  conveyor, 
which  carries  it  to  the  bagging  spout. 

The  lumpy  materials  which  will    not    pass    through    the 


4-^4  FERTILIZERS. 

meshes  or  perforations,  roll  out  the  lower  end  of  screen,  and 
are  ground  between  the  rolls,  and  delivered  to  the  conveyor. 

While  one  bin  is  being  worked  out,  the  other  is  being 
weighed  full. 

These  machines  will  handle  two  to  four  tons  of  fertilizer 
per  hour,  according  to  size  of  machine,  and  according  to 
character  of  the  ingredients  used.  The  reel  should  run 
about  20  to  30  revolutions  per  minute.  Generally,  all  of 
the  ingredients  are  dry,  and  are  ground  fine  when  received. 
Kainit  is  the  most  troublesome  of  the  ordinary  ingredients 
used.  It  absorbs  moisture  from  the  atmosphere,  and  be- 
comes lumpy  in  damp  weather. 

There  are  other  mixing  machines,  which  are  designed  to 
do  more  or  less  grinding  while  mixing. 

The  important  difference  between  mixing  fertilizers  on 
the  farm  for  home  use,  and  mixing  them  in  the  mill  for  sale 
is  that  in  the  latter  case,  the  laws  require  certain  guaranteed 
analysis,  or  they  fix  a  minimum  percentage  of  phosphcric 
acid,  ammonia  and  potash.  The  actual  analysis  as  guaran- 
teed by  the  mill  must  be  branded  on  each  sack  sold.  These 
sacks  are  occasionally  sampled  and  analyzed,  wherever 
found,  by  the  State  inspector.  Therefore,  it  is  important 
that  all  fertilizer  plants  should  frequently  analyze  the 
materials  they  buy  and  the  goods  they  sell. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

Gbe  fiDanufacture  of  fertilisers. 

The  foregoing-  chapter  dealt  with  the  manipulation  of 
certain  fertilizer  ingredients  into  definite  mixtures,  contain- 
ing known  proportions  of  the  fertilizing  chemicals.  This 
pre-supposes  the  existence  of  these  ingredients.  The 
present  chapter  will  discuss  the  production  of  some  of  these 
ingredients  from  natural  sources  of  supply. 

Raw   flaterials. 

Table  XVIII.  has  shown  some  of  the  usual  sources  from 
which  fertilizer  factories  secure  their  raw  materials.  Nitro- 
gen (or  ammonia)  is  usually  taken  from  cotton  seed  meal, 
nitrate  of  soda,  sulphate  of  ammonia,  dried  blood,  or  tank- 
age and  fish  scrap. 

Cotton  seed  meal  is  on  the  market  as  such.  It  contains 
about  7  per  cent,  nitrogen.  Nitrate  of  soda  comes  from  the 
nitrate  mines  of  Chili.  It  is  concentrated  before  shipment, 
and  is  about  96  per  cent,  pure  nitrate,  equivalent  to  16  per 
cent,  nitrogen. 

Sulphate  of  ammonia  is  a  by-product  from  gas  works.  It 
contains  about  20  per  cent,  nitrogen. 

Dried  blood  is  obtained  from  slaughter  houses.  It  con- 
tains about  12  per  cent."  nitrogen  (varying  from  8  to  16  per 
cent.). 

Tankage  is  obtained  from  slaughter  houses.  It  is  variable 
in  composition,  consisting  of  all  kinds  of  waste  bones,  meat 
and  other  offal.    It  contains  about  5  per  cent,  nitrogen. 

Fish  scrap  is  the  residue  from  menhaden  fish,  when  they 
have  been  pressed  for  oil.  It  contains  about  8  per  cent, 
nitrogen. 

Potash  is  mostly  the  product  of  German  mines,  generally 
in  the  form  of  sulphate  or  muriate.  Kainit  contains  about 
12  per  cent,  potash  in  the  form  of  sulphate.     Sylvinit    is    a 


426  THE    MANUFACTURE    OF    FERTILIZERS. 

mixture  of  sulphate  and  muriate,  and  contains  about  14  per 
cent  potash. 

There  are  some  concentrated  forms  of  muriate  and  sul- 
phate on  the  market,  containing  as  much  as  50  per  cent, 
potash. 

The  fertilizer  factories  of  the  United  States  do  not  under- 
take to  manufacture  nitrogenous  or  potassic  chemicals,  but 
accept  them  as  raw  materials  as  they  appear  on  the  markets. 
All  of  the  materials  mentioned  are  soluble,  and  thus  avail- 
able as  plant-food.  Phosphoric  acid,  however,  occurs  in 
quantity  only  in  an  insoluble  state.  Fertilizer  factories 
undertake  to  convert  these  raw  materials  into  products  con- 
taining- phosphoric  acid  in  a  condition  that  may  be  taken  up 
by  plant  life. 

Phosphoric  Acid. 

Phosphoric  acid  is  generally  referred  to  as  ( 1 )  insoluble 
( that  is,  insoluble  in  water  and  ammonium  citrate,  though 
soluble  in  strong  acids),  (2)  soluble  (that  is,  soluble  in 
water),  (3)  reverted,  which  is  soluble,  in  ammonium  cit- 
rate. The  insoluble  is  of  no  use  to  plant  life.  The  soluble  is 
of  immediate  use:  the  moisture  in  the  soil  dissolves  it  and 
carries  it  to  the  roots  of  the  plants.  The  reverted  is  not  solu- 
ble in  water  (it  is  soluble  in  ammonium  citrate),  but  may 
nevertheless  be  taken  up  by  the  roots  of  plants  when  they  rind 
it.  Thus  the  two  last  forms  are  useful,  and  are  generally 
referred  to  together  as  "available."  The  "available"  is  all 
that  is  of  value  to  the  farmer. 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid  may  be  made  from  raw  bones, 
containing  about  20  to  25  per  cent,  total  (  soluble  and  in- 
soluble), of  which  5  per  cent,  is  available,  or  from  bone 
black  containing  35  per  cent,  insoluble.  But  the  common 
source  of  supply  is  phosphate  rock.  This  is  mined  in  South 
Carolina,  containing  25  to  30  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid; 
in  Florida,  as  land  rock  phosphate,  containing  30  to  35  per 
cent.,  or  as  pebble  phosphate,  containing  25  to  30;  and  in 
Tennessee,  containing  about  35  per  cent. 


- 


< 


THE    MANUFACTURE    OF    FERTILIZERS.  429 

Fertilizer  factories  receive  this  n  ck  in  bulk  in  cars,  and 
grind  it  into  fine  powder,  and  treat  it  with  strong  sulphuric 
acid,  thus  converting  the  phosphoric  acid  into  the  available 
form,  the  product  being  known  as  acid  phosphate,  and  some 
times  as  super-phosphate,  containing  about  15  per  cent, 
available  phosphoric  acid.  The  ground  rock  is  treated  with 
its  own  weight  of  sulphuric  acid,  so  that  rock  containing  30 
per  cent,  would  produce  a  mixture  containing  only  15  per 
cent. — omitting  a   small   allowance   for   evaporation. 

Sulphuric  Acid. 

For  the  manufacture  of  acid  phosphates,  large  quantities 
of  sulphuric  acid  are  required.  Most  of  it  is  water,  upon 
which  it  is  uneconomical  to  pay  freights.  It  is  also  danger- 
ous to  ship.  Therefore  most  fertilizer  companies  manufac- 
ture sulphuric  acid. 

Figure  125  is  a  general  view  of  a  complete  fertilizer  plant, 
showing  the  sulphuric  acid  chamber  on  the  left.  Figure  126 
is  a  plan  and  sectional  elevation  of  the  acid  chamber.  On  the 
left,  is  the  furnace  for  burning  the  sulphur  or  pyrites.  The 
gases  pass  through  one  of  the  towers  into  the  leaden  cham- 
bers, where  they  are  mostly  condensed,  the  remaining  gases 
being  led  to  and  reclaimed  in  the  other  tower. 

Sulphuric  acid  may  be  made  from  sulphur  or  from  pyrites. 

The  most  profitable  material  from  which  to  make  it  must 
be  determined  from  their  respective  market  prices. 

Nearly  all  of  the  sulphur  is  imported  from  Sicily.  Large 
quantities  of  pyrites  are  imported  from  Spain  and  Portugal ; 
but  it  is  also  largely  mined  in  the  United  States.  There  are 
known  good  mines  in  the  United  States  (both  sulphur  and 
pyrites)  which  are  not  available  because  of  cost  of  mining  or 
transportation. 

Nearly  all  sulphuric  acid  chambers,  running  in  connection 
with  fertilizer  factories  have  their  furnaces  arranged  for 
burning  pyrites.  Some  of  them  have  furnaces  for  sulphur 
also,  so  that  they  may  change  from  one  to  the  other  to  suit 
market  changes. 


43©  THE    MANUFACTURE    OF    FERTILIZERS. 

The  process  of  making  acid  is  substantially  the  same, 
whether  burning  sulphur  or  pyrites,  the  principal  difference 
being  in  the  construction  of  the  furnaces.  The  sulphur  or 
pyrites  is  burned  in  a  suitable  furnace.  The  resulting  gases, 
mostly  sulphurous  acid  gas,  pass  over  heated  pots  of  nitrate 
of  scda,  which  give  off  nitrous  gases.  These  gases  mingle 
and  pass  through  the  Glover  tower  into  large  lead  chambers, 
into  which  jets  of  steam  are  admitted.  There  are  two,  and 
sometimes  three,  lead  chambers,  into  which  the  gases  suc- 
cessively pass.  The  first  chamber  condenses  and  catches  the 
strongest  acid,  the  ones  farthest  away  make  the  weakest. 
The  uncondensed  gases  are  conducted  back  near  the  starting 
point  to  Gay-Lussac  tower,  where  the  nitrous  gases  are 
partly  reclaimed,  and  the  remainder  escape. 

The  chemical  reactions  taking  place  in  the  manufacture  of 
sulphuric  acid  are  complicated. 

The  result  accomplished  is  that  sulphur  fumes  in  the 
presence  of  nitrous  fumes  and  steam,  all  under  proper  condi- 
tions, produce  sulphuric  acid,  which  condenses  into  liquid 
form.  The  gases  which  do  not  condense  in  the  lead  cham- 
bers consist  mostly  of  nitrous  fumes.  These  gases  are 
passed  to  and  up  the  Gay-Lussac  tower  from  the  bottom, 
while  strong  cool  sulphuric  acid  (  60  degrees  Baume')  is 
run  down  from  the  top.  This  sulphuric  acid  absorbs  the 
nitrous  gases  and  saves  them  for  further  use.  They  are 
separated  from  the  acid  by  being  run  down  the  Glover 
tower,  through  which  the  hot  sulphur  fumes  are  passing  up 
from  the  furnaces. 

This  contact  helps  in  the  production  of  more  sulphuric 
acid,  and  makes  a  complete  cycle,  in  which  the  nitrous  gases 
are  used  over  and  over,  without  being  intentionally  con- 
sumed. In  practice,  however,  a  small  amount  of  the  gases 
are  actually  condensed  with  the  sulphuric  acid,  and  some 
escapes  into  the  air,  so  that  it  is  necessary  to  constantly 
supply  fresh  nitre,  in  pots  in  the  furnaces. 

An  ordinary  plant  for  the  production  of  20  to  25  tons  of 
sulphuric    acid   per    day    of    24    hours,  would    have    about 


no   , 


THE    MANUFACTURE    OE    FERTILIZERS.  433 

150,000  cubic  feet  of  lead  chambers,  say  30  feet  wide,  20  feet 
high,  250  feet  long-.  This  is  about  7,500  cubic  feet  of  cham- 
ber per  ton  capacity  (in  24  hours)  of  sulphuric  acid.  This 
is  the  lowest  allowable  limit  for  good  working,  and  njore 
chamber  space  would  work  better.  There  would  be  one 
Glover  tower  about  9  feet  square  and  30  feet  high,  say  2,433 
cubic  feet,  or  120  cubic  feet  per  ton  capacity  of  sulphunc 
acid.  There  would  be  one  or  two  Gay-Lussac  towers  with 
total  space  of  about  1,500  cubic  feet  or  75  cubic  feet  per  ton 
capacity  of  acid.  If  it  is  in  one  tower,  it  might  be  7  feet 
square  and  30  feet  high  ,  or  if  two  towers,  5  feet  square  and 
30  feet  high. 

The  towers  are  built  of  timber,  or  steel  frame,  and  lined 
first  with  sheet  lead,  and  then  with  hard  fire  bricks,  and 
finally  packed  full  of  quartz  rock,  for  the  purpose  of  making 
the  down-coming  acids  spread  out.  and  more  intimately  mix 
with  the  up-going  gases. 

The  furnaces  would  vary  according  to  whether  sulphur 
or  lump  pyrites  or  fine  dust  pyrites  are  used.  The  cham- 
bers are  made  by  soldering  together  large  sheets  of  lead  in 
place.  This  operation  is  technically  known  as  "lead-burn- 
ing." The  floor  of  chambers  is  usually  built  4  or  5  feet 
from  the  ground,  to  afford  opportunity  for  detection  of 
leaks.  The  walls  of  the  chambers  are  built  4  or  5  feet  frcm 
the  walls  of  the  building,  so  that  there  may  be  free  access  to 
every  part. 

In  some  improved  forms  of  chambers,  there  are  cooling 
columns  inserted  between  the  successive  chambers.  These 
pass  the  gases  around  lead  tubes,  through  which  air  is  made 
to  circulate.  This  assists  the  chambers  in  condensing  the 
gases.  Sulphuric  acid  is  pumped  to  the  top  of  the  towers, 
and  elsewhere  by  the  use  of  compresed  air.  Ordinary  forms 
of  pump  would  be  corroded  and  soon  destroyed  by  the  acid. 
An  air  compressor  forces  air  into  a  cast  iron  drum  contain- 
ing acid  (technically  known  as  an  "acid  egg").  This  forces 
the  acid  out  to  the  point  desired.  The  pressure  is  released 
and  more  acid  admitted,  and  so  on.   Sometimes  the  arrange- 


434  THE    MANUFACTURE    OF    FERTILIZERS. 

ment  is  automatic,  so   that  the    pumping    goes    on    contin- 
uously, without  any  attention. 

The  theoretical  composition  of  pure  sulphuric  acid  is  by 
weight  as  follows : 

Hydrogen 2  pares 

Sulphur 32  parts 

Oxygen 64  parts 

98  parts 
Or  what  is  the  same  thing : 

Sulphur 32 

Oxygen 48 

Water 18 

98 

In  practice,  however,  the  nearest  approach  to  the  above 
composition  contains  more  water,  as  follows  : 

Sulphur 54 

Oxygen 64 

Water 96 

214 

According  to  this  last  formula,  sulphur  forms  about  25 
per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  strongest  acid.  The  strength 
of  acid  is  generally  measured  by  its  specific  gravity,  as  deter- 
mined by  a  hydrometer.  The  Baume'  hydrometer  is  the  one 
generally  in  use  in  this  country.  The  strong  acid  above  men- 
tioned has  a  specific  gravity  of  about  1.82,  or  66  degrees 
Baume'.     This  is  known  to  the  trade  as  "oil  of  vitriol.'' 

The  ordinary  acid,  as  made  in  the  acid  chamber  for  use  in 
making  fertilizers,  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1.5,  or  50  degrees 
Baume'.  This  strength  of  acid  contains  62^  per  cent,  of 
theoretical  acid,  or  about  20  per  cent,  of  sulphur. 


THE    MANUFACTURE    OF    FERTILIZERS.  435 

According  to  the  above  calculations,  one  pound  of  sulphur 
should  produce  about  5  pounds  of  50  degree  acid.  Owing 
to  the  losses  in  the  processes.  4^  pounds  is  good  practice. 

An  acid  chamber  having  a  capacity  of  150,000  cubic  feet 
would  burn  in  a  day  of  24  hours  about  10,000  pounds  of 
sulphur.  This  would  produce  about  47,500  pounds  of  50 
degree  acid,  or  say  24  tons.  The  cost  of  operation  would  be 
about  as  follows : 

10,000  lbs  sulphur  (a    ic $100.00 

300  lbs    nitrate  soda  (a    2c 6.00 

\\  tons  coal  (a  $3.50 5.25 

Labor  (  6  men) 6.00 

Superintendence 3.00 

Insurance  and  incidentals 4.00 

Total  cost  of  24  tons  acid $124.25 

Cost  per  ton  about  $5.20. 

When  using  pyrites  instead  of  sulphur,  the  cost  may 
generally  be  reduced.  Ordinary  American  pyrites  contains 
about  42  per  cent,  of  actual  sulphur,  but  only  about  40  per 
cent,  can  be  utilized. 

In  order  to  make  the  same  24  tons  of  acid,  it  will  require 
the  same  10,000  pounds  of  sulphur,  and  this  requires  25,003 
pounds  of  pyrites,  or  say  1 1  long  tons.  The  cost  of  opera- 
tion would  be  about  as  follows  : 

1 1  long  tons  pyrites  (a   $5.00 $55-00 

300  lbs.  nitrate  soda  (a    2c 6.00 

2  tons  coal  @  $3.50 7.00 

Labor   (  8  men) 8.00 

Superintendence 3.00 

Insurance  and  incidentals 4-5° 

Total  cost  of  24  tons  acid $83 .  50 

Cost  per  ton  about  $3.50. 


436  THE    MANUFACTURE    OF    FERTILIZERS. 

The  cost  of  acicl  chambers  of  the  capacity  above  men- 
tioned is  for  burning  sulphur  about  $25,000,  and  for  burn- 
ing pyrites  about  $30,000. 

Figure  126  shows  plan  and  elevation  of  a  set  of  sulphuric 
acid  chambers. 

Making  Acid   Phosphate. 

Fig.  127  shows  the  general  arrangement  of  machinery 
for  grinding  phosphate  rock  and  treating  it  with  sulphuric 
acid  for  the  production  of  the  acid  phosphate  of  commerce. 

Fertilizer  Plant,  Fig.  127 — Lettering. 

A. — Phosphate  rock  unloaded  from  cars. 
B. — Rock  crusher. 
C. — Elevator. 

D. — Bins  for  crushed  rock. 
E. — Spouts  to  grinding  mills. 
F. — Grinding  mills. 
G. — Conveyor. 

H. — Elevator  to  ground  rock  bins. 
J. — Ground  rock  bins. 
K. — Mixing  machine. 
L. — Sulphuric  acid  tank. 

M. — Car  to  carry  away  mixed  material  dumped  from 
mixing  machine. 

Process. 

Rock  is  crushed  small  enough  for  the  grinding  mills  to  re- 
ceive it. 

Crushed  rock  is  elevated  to  bins,  to  be  fed  to  mills. 

Mills  grind  rock  to  fine  powder. 

The  ground  rock  is  stored  in  bins  at  top  of  tower,  ready 
for  mixing. 

Ground  rock  is  weighed  into  mixing  machine. 

Sulphuric  acid  is  weighed  into  mixing  machine,  about 
same  weight  as  the  ground  rock. 


438  THE    MANUFACTURE    OF    FERTILIZERS. 

Mixing  machine  stirs  them  intimately  together.  Heat 
and  fumes  are  generated. 

When  mixing  is  complete,  material  is  dumped  into  a  car 
running  on  track  to  the  desired  spot  in  the  shed,  where  it 
is  automatically  dumped. 

Material  remains  in  the  dump  shed  and  dries  until  ready 
to  be  sacked. 

Sacking  is  accomplished  in  a  machine  similar  to  the  ferti- 
lizer mixer.  Fig.  124. 

Finished   Fertilizers. 

Mixed  or  "manipulated"  fertilizers  of  any  desired  formul  1 
may  be  made  according  to  the  process  described  in  the  last 
chapter. 

.  There  is  another  style  of  mixing  that  can  only  be  done 
in  a  plant  where  the  acid  phosphate  is  actually  made.  This 
is  known  as  the  "wet  mix."  Instead  of  waiting  for  the 
acid  phosphate  to  dry  and  be  sacked  for  mixture  with  the 
potash-  and  ammonia-producing  chemicals,  these  chemicals 
are  elevated  to  the  top  of  the  building  into  bins  near  the 
ground  rock  bins.  When  the  ground  rock  is  run  into  the 
mixer  and  treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  then  the  ammonia 
chemicals  are  added,  and  finally  the  potash,  and  they  are  all 
mixed  at  once,  thus  being  perfectly  blended.  The  product 
is  then  run  into  the  car  and  dumped,  as  in  the  case  of  plain 
acid  phosphate. 

In  making  wet  mixtures,  nitrate  of  soda  should  never  be 
used,  because  in  presence  of  sulphuric  acid,  nitrogen  es- 
capes. Even  in  dry  mixing,  it  is  not  well  to  use  nitrate  of 
soda,  because  in  standing,  there  is  loss  of  nitrogen,  but  all 
other  sources  of  nitrogen  may  be  freely  used. 

Wet  mixed  fertilizers  are  much  more  uniform  in  analysis 
than  the  dry  mixed. 

A  fertilizer  factory  of  this  description  of  sufficient  ca- 
pacity to  use  the  24  tons  of  acid  in  24  hours,  made  by  the 
acid  chamber  described,  would  use  24  tons  of  rock,  and 
make  about  45  tons  of  commercial  acid  phosphate. 


THE    MANUFACTURE    OF    FERTILIZERS.  439 

If  the  whole  product  is  turned  into  ammoniated  guano, 
it  would  make  about  75  tons. 

The  cost  of  such  a  fertilizer  factory  would  be  about 
$25,000.  The  whole  cost  of  fertilizer  factory  and  acid 
chamber  for  burning  pyrites  would  be  $60,000  to  $75,000. 

The  result  of  the  operations  of  the  entire  plant  for  one  day 
of  24  hours,  making  ammoniated  fertilizer,  would  be  about 
as  follows : 

Sulphuric  acid,  24  tons  (a   $4. 50 $108.00 

Phosphate  rock.  24  tons  (a    $6.00 144.00 

Cotton  seed  meal.  22\  tons  (a   $18.00 405.00 

Kainit,  jl  tons  (a   $10.00 75-°° 

6  tons  coal  @  $3.50 21.00 

Sacks 6o.od 

Labor  (  20  men) 20.00 

Superintendence 3.00 

Insurance  and  sundries 10.00 

Total  cost  75  tons  of  fertilizer $846.00 

This  is  about  $11.30  per  ton.  In  the  above  table  the  sul- 
phuric acid  is  put  in  at  the  cost  of  manufacture,  as  shown 
in  a  former  table. 

Ammoniated  fertilizers  usually  cost  the  farmer  $20  to 
$25  per  ton.  The  great  difference  between  manufacturing 
cost,  and  the  cost  to  consumer  is  not  by  any  means  all.  profit 
to  the  manufacturer.  He  usually  sells  to  a  wholesale  dealer, 
who  sometimes  guarantees  to  sell  the  entire  output.  These 
in  turn  sell  to  retail  dealers,  who  sell  to  the  farmer,  Yen- 
often  on  long  credit.  Thus  the  apparent  profit  is  divided 
between  the  manufacturer  and  at  least  two  middlemen,  be- 
sides being  reduced  by  interest  on  the  long  credit,  and  by 
bad  debts. 

Cotton   Option. 

Sometimes  fertilizers  are  sold  to  farmers  on  what  is  known 
as  the  "cotton  option'*  plan.     The  farmer  buys  the  fertilizer 


440  THE    MANUFACTURE    OF    FERTILIZERS. 

in  the  spring,  payable  the  next  fall,  either  at  a  stated  price, 
say  $25.00  per  ton,  or  for  say  300  pounds  of  lint  cotton,  re- 
gardless of  the  price.  The  farmer  has  the  option.  He 
would,  of  course,  pay  in  cotton  instead  of  money,  in  case 
the  price  of  cotton  should  happen  to  be  ( on  the  arrangement 
above  stated),  less  than  8  1-3  cents  per  pound  at  the  speci- 
fied date  of  settlement.  This  is  in  the  nature  of  a  specula- 
tion; but  it  is  a  safe  one  for  the  farmer,  and  may  be  made 
safe  for  the  fertilizer  man  if  he  fixes  the  option  equivalent 
at  such  a  price  that  it  may  be  covered  by  the  sale  of  cotton 
"futures." 


APPENDIX. 


Containing  Documents  Relating  to  the  Early  History  of 

the  Saw  Gin,  and  Notes  and  Tables  Relating 

to  Cattle  Feeding. 


APPENDIX.  443 

Document  I. 
List    of  Suits  for    Infringement  and 

Damages   Brought   by  Whitney    in 

United  States    District   Court,   Sa= 

vannah,  Ga. 

Edward   Lyons.   1795,   non-suit,   179S. 

Wm.  Kennedy  &  Co.,  1795,  verdict  for 
defendant. 

Fred   Ballard.   179S,   non-suit,    1799. 

McKinney  &  Co.,  1801,  dismissed, 
1S04. 

William   Clark,  1801,   non-suit,  1803. 

John   Morrison,   1801,   defendant   dead. 

William  Byrnes,  1801,  non-suit,  1S03. 

John   Walker,    1801,    non-suit,    1S04. 

Chas.   Gachet,  1S01,   non-suit,   1803. 

Isaiah    Carter,    1801,    non-suit,    1S03. 

Wm.  Few,  1801,  verdict  for  defend- 
ant. 

John    Davis.    1801,    non-suit,    1S03. 

Sam'l  Oevereux,   1S01,   not  served. 

Solomon  Marshall,  1801,  settled. 

Arthur    Fort.    1801,    not    served. 

James    Moore,    1801,    not    served. 

Ignatius    Few,    1801,    not    served. 

Sam'l  Higginbotham.  1801,  non-suit, 
1803. 

Jonathan  Embree,  1801,  non-suit, 
1S03. 

■Henry  Keebler,   1801,   non-suit,   1803. 

D.   W.   Easley,   1801,   non-suit.    1803. 

Silus    Grigg,    1801,    not    found. 

Arthur    Fort,    1801,    non-suit,    1S03. 

Arthur  Fort  and  John  Powell,  1S04, 
decree  for  perpetual  injunction,  Dec. 
19th.  1806. 

Chas.  Gachet,  1806,  verdict  for  Sl,- 
500,    May   11th.    180S. 

Isaiah  Carter,  1S06,  verdict  for  $2,- 
000.   May  10th.   1S0S. 

Wm.  Byrnes,  1S07,  judgment  by  de- 
fault, 181.1. 


444  APPENDIX. 

Document  II,  Document  III. 

WHITNEY'S  SPIKE  GIN  THE    WHITNEY    SUBSTITUTED 

PATENT.  PATENT  PAPERS. 

Certified  Copy  of  the  Original  Patent  Copy  of  Specifications  filed  with  the 

Specif  cations  filed    in   the    Patent       Patent    Office    in    1841,   After    the 

Office  by  Eli  Whitney,  1 793=4 •  Fire.     This    Purports   to   be  a   Re= 

This  paper  is   now  on  file  in  the       production  of  the  Original  Papers. 

United  States  Court  House,  Savan=       It   is   Printed   in   Parallel  Column, 

nah,  Ga.  so   it  May  be  Compared  With   the 

Authentic  Copy. 

This  paper  is  now  on  file  in  the 
Patent  Office  at  Washington. 

UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA. 

To  all  to  whom  these  .Letters  Patient 
shall  come: 

WHEREAS,  Eli  Whitney,  a  citizen  of 
the  United  States,  hath  alleged  that  he 
has  invented  a  new  and  useful  im- 
provement in  the  mode  of  spinning  cot- 
ton, which  improvement  he  stiates  has 
not  been  known  oi-  used  before  his  ap- 
plication; hath  made  oa  h  that  he  does 
verily  believe  shat  he  is  tne  true  inven- 
tor or  discoverer  of  the  said  iimipro ve- 
in en  t;  hath  paid  into  the  Treasury  of 
the  United  States  the  sum  of  thirty  dol- 
lars, delivered  ia  receipt*  for  the  same,, 
and  presented  a  petition  to  the  Secre- 
tary of  State,  signifying  a  desire  of  ob- 
taining an  exclusive  property  in  the 
staid  improvement,  and  praying  tha&  a 
patent  may  be  granted:  THESE  ARE 
THEREFORE  to  grant,  according  I'O 
law,  to  t.he  said  Eli  Whitney,  his  heirs, 
administrators  or  assigns,  for  t»he  term 
of  fouirteen  years  from  the  sixth  day  of 
November  last,  the  full  and  exclusive 
right  and  liberty  of  making,  construct- 
ing, using,  vending  to  o&hers  to  be  used, 
the    said    improvements;    a    description 


(NOTE. — Corresponding  clause  occurs 
it   the  end  of  this  paper.) 


APPENDIX.  445 

ORIGINAL   PATENT.  SUBSTITUTED  PATENT. 

whereof  its  given  in  the  words  of  the 
said  Eli  Whitney,  himself,  in  the  sched- 
ule hereto  annexed,  and  is  made  a  pan 
of  these  presents. 

In  testimony  whereat  I  have  caused 
these  Letters  to  be  made  Patent,  anil 
the  Seal  of  the  United  States  to  be 
hereunto  affixed. 
GIVE'N  under  my  hand,  at  the  City  of 
Philadelphia,  this  fourteenth  day  of 
March,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one 
thousand,  seven  hundred  and  ninety- 
four,  and  of  <he  Independence  of  the 
United  States  of  America  the  eigh- 
teenth. 

(Seal.) 

G.        WASHINGTON. 
EDM.      RANDOLPH, 
Secretary  of  State. 

City  of  Philadelphia,  to-wit: 

I  do  certify  that  the  foregoing  Let- 
ters Patent  were  delivered  to  me  on 
i>he  fourteenth  day  of  March,  in  che 
year  Oif  our  Lord  one  thousand,  seven 
hundred  and  ninety-four,  to  be  exam- 
ined; that  I  have  examined  the  same. 
and  find  them  conformable  to  law;  and 
I  do  hereby  re»urn  the  same  to  the  Sec- 
retary of  State  within  fifteen  days  from 
the  date  aforesaid,  to-wit,  on  this  four- 
teenth day  of  March,  in  t>he  year  afore- 
said. 

WM.    BRADFORD, 

Attorney  General  of  the  United  States. 

The  schedule  referred  to  in  these 
letters  patent  and  making  part  of  tnc 
same,  containing  a  description  in  the 
words  of  the  said  Eli  Whitney  himself 


446  APPENDIX. 


ORIGINAL   PATENT.  SUBSTITUTED    PATENT. 

of  an  improvement  in  the  mode  of  gin- 
ning  cotton. 
A  description  of  a  new  invented  cot-        A    short    description    of    tine    machine 
t  m    gin,   or   machine  for  cleansing   and    invented  by   the  subscriber  for  ginning 
separating    cotton    from    its   seeds. |  ■    ibton. 

This  machine  may  oe  described  under        The   principal   parts   of   this   machine 
five  divisions,   corresponding  to  its  five    are  1st,  the  fraime;  2d,  the  cylinder;  3d, 
principal    parts,    viz:  1.  Frame.     2.  The    the    breastwork;    4th,    the    clearer     and 
Cylinder.     3.  The    Breastwork.     4.      The    5th,   the  hopper. 
Cleaner.     5.  The  Hopper.  1st-    'The   frame   by    which   the   whole 

1.  The  frame,  by  which  the  whole  work  is  supported  and  kept  together, 
work    is   supported    and    kept    together, 

ought   to    be   made     of     well     seasoned 

timber,    so    that    it    may    be    firm    and 

steady,   and   never  become  loose  in    the 

joints.    'Scantling  four  inches  by  three, 

will  perhaps  be  stuff,  of  as  suitable  size 

as   any.    The   frame   should     be     of     a 

square    or    parallelogramic    form,      the    is   of  a  square  or  parallelogramic  farm 

width    must    answer    to    the    length    of    and  proportioned  to  the  other  parts  as 

the  cylinder  and  the  height  and  length    may    be    most    convenient. 

may  be   proportioned   as   circumstances 

shall   render   convenient. 

In  the  drawing  annexed,  Fig.  1,  is  a 
section  of  the  mac'.hine.  A  represents 
the  cylinder,  B  the  breastwork,  C  the 
cleaner  and   D   the  hopper. 

2.  The  cylinder  is  of  wood;  its  form  2d.  The  cylinder  is  of  wood,  its  Torm 
is  perfectly  described  by  its  same,  and  ;s  perfectly  described  bv  its  name,  and 
its  dimensions  may  be  from  six  to  nine  jLS  dimensions  may  be  from  six  to  nine 
inches  diameter,  and  from  two  to  five  inches  diameter,  and  from  two  to  five 
feet  in  length.  This  cylender-cylender  is  Ceet  in  length.  The  cylinder  is  placed 
placed  horizontally  across  the  frame,  in  horizontally  across  the  frame,  leaving 
such  manner  as  to  give  rocm  for  the  room  for  the  clearer  on  one  side,  and 
clearer  on  one  side  of  it.  and  the  hopper  the  hopper  on  the  other.  In  the  cyl- 
on  the  other  as  in  Fig.  1.  Its  height,  if 

the  machine  is  worked  by  hand  should 
be  about  three  feet  four  inches;  other- 
wise  it   may   be   regulated   by   conven- 


APPENDIX.  447 

ORIGINAL  PATENT.  SUBSTITUTED     PATENT, 

ience.  In  the  cylender  is  fixed  an  iron 
axis  so  large  as  io  turn  in  the  lathe 
without  quivering'.     The  axis  may  pass 

quite  through  the  cylender     or     consist    inder  is  fixed  an  iron  axis   which  may 
only   of  gudgeons,    driven    wilh   cement    pass  quite  through,  or  consists  only  jf 
in   each   end.     There   must   be   a   s"houl-    gudgeons  driven  into  each  end. 
der  at  C,  Fig.  2,  on  each  side  the  bear-        There   are  shoulders   on   this  axis,    to 
in.g  or  box  to  prevent     any     hioriz'ontil    prevent  any  horizontal  variation,  and  ir 
variation    in    the    cylinder.     The     bear- 
ings of  the  axis  or  those     parts     which 
rest  on   the  boxes   must   be  rounded   in 
a  lathe,  so  that   the  centre  of  the  axis 
may    coincide    with    the    centre    of    the 

cylender.  One  end  of  the  axis  should  extends  so  far  without  the  frame  as 
extend  so  far  wi'hout  the  frame  as  to  to  admit  a  winch  at  one  end,  by  which 
admit  the  winch,  by  which  it  is  turned,  it  is  put  in  motion,  and  so  far  at  the 
to  be  connected  with  it  a.t  C,  and  so  far  other  end  as  to  receive  the  whirl  by 
at  the  other  end  as  to  receive  the  whirl  which  the  clearer  is  turned.  The  sur- 
designed  for  putting  the  clearer  in  mo- 
tion. The  brass  boxes,  in  which  the 
axis  of  the  cylender  runs,  consist 
each  of  two  pants,  C  and  iD,  Fig.  7. 
The  lower  part,  D,  is  sunk  into  tb.3 
wood  of  tlhe  frame  to  keep  it  firm  and 
motionless  and  the  u.ipper  part,  C, 
is  kept  in  its  place  by  two  small  iron- 
iron  bolts,  HH,  headed  on  the  lower  end 
at  H.  These  bolts  are  inserted  into  the 
under  side  of  the  rail  or  scantling  of 
the  frame  and  continued  up  through 
both  parts  of  the  box.  A  portion  of 
tht  bolts  as  H,  A,  should  be  square, 
to  prevent  them  from  turning.  The 
upper  part  of  the  box,  C,  is  screwed 
dcwn  close  with  a  nut  on  the  end 
d>:  each  bolt.  At  E,  is  a  perforation  for 
conveying  oil  to  the  axis.  After  the 
cylinder  with  its  axis  is  fitted  and 
rounded   with  exactness,     the     circular    face  of  the  cylinder  is  filled  with  teeth, 


44§  APPENDIX. 


ORIGINAL  PATENT.  SUBSTITUTED    PATENT. 

part   of  its  surface   i*   filled   with    teeth    set  in  annular  rows,  which  are  at  such 
set  in  annular  rows.    Ine  spaces  D,  E,    a  distance  from  eaah  other  as  to  admit 
F,   G.    H,   Fig.     2,     between     the     rows    a   cotton   seed   to   play     freely     in     the 
of  teeth  must  be  so  large  as  to  admit  a   space   between    them.     The     space     be- 
cotton    seed    to    turn    around    freely    'n 
them  every  way,  and  ought  not  to     be 
less  than  seven-sixteenths  of  one    inch. 
The  spaces  K,  L,  M,  N,  &c  ,  Fig.  1,  be- 
tween the  teeth,  in  ihe  same  row,  must    'tween   each    tooth   in   the  same   row,    is 
"be  so  small  as  not  bo  admit  a  seed  or  a    so  small  as  not  to  admit  a  seed,  no:  a 
half  seed.     They  ought   not     to     exceed    half  seed   to   enter  it.     These  teeth   are 
one-twelfth  of  an  inch;     and     I     think- 
about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  the  best. 
The  teeth  are  made  and  set  in  the  fol- 
lowing   manner:     Take    common      iron    made  of  stiff  iron  wire,  driven  into  the 
wire,  about  No.  12,  13  or     14,     draw     it    wood    of    the    cylinder.    The    teeth    are 
about  three  sizes  less,  without neaiingin 
order  to  stiffen  it.  Cut  it  into  pieces  four 
or  five   feet  in  length     and     straighten 
theim.  Steel  wire  would  perlhaps  be  best 
if  it   were  not  too  expensive. 

Then  with  a  machine,  somewhat  like 
•that  used  for  cutting  nails,  cut  the  wire 
into  pieces  about  one  inch  long.  In  die 
jaws  of  this  machine  at  O,  Fig.  10, 
are  fixed  the  two  pieces  of  steel  D,  D, 
which  are  pressed  together,  as  may  be 
observed  from  the  figure,  by  the  opera- 
tion of  a  compound  lever.  These  pieces 
of  steal  are  so  sett  in,  that  upo>n  being 
pressed  together,  thear  approaching  sur- 
faces, meet  only  on  one  side  next  to  D, 
D,  leaving  between  tihiem  a  wedge  like 
opening,  which  enlarges  as  the  distance 
fncm  the  place  of  contact  increases.  On 
the  side,  D,  D,  about  one  inch  distant 
from  the  place  of  contact,  is  fixed  a 
gunge.  'The  wire  is  inserted  on  the  side 
opposite  D,  D,  and  thrust   thro'  to   th2 


APPENDIX. 


449 


ORIGINAL  PATENT. 
guage.  Then  on  forcing  down  the  lever 
the  wire  is  separated,  leaving  that  end 
of  the  wire  n<:xt  the  side  D,  D,  cut 
smoothly  and  transversely  off,  and  the 
end  of  the  other  part  flattened  like  a 
wedge.  The  fattened  end  is  then  thrust 
forward  to  the  guage  and  the  same  op- 
eiation  is  repeated.  In  this  manner  the 
teeth  are  cut  of  equal  length,  with  one 
end  flattened  and  the  other  cut  directly 
off.  Flatting  one  end  of  the  wire  is  ben- 
eficiial  in  two  ways:  1.  The  flatted 
ends  of  the  teeth  are  driven  into  th-3 
wood  with  mo-re  ease  and  exactness.  2. 
It  prevents  them  from  turning-turning 
after  they  are  set.  To  prevent  the  wires 
from  bending  while  driving,  they  are 
holden  with  pliers  the  jaws  of  which 
ought  to  be  about  half  an  inch  in  width, 
with  a  corresponding  transverse  groove 
in  each  jaw.  Thus  holden,  the  teeth 
are,  with  a  light  hammer  driven,  one 
by  one,  into-  tJhecylender,  perpendicular- 
ly to  its  axis.  Then  with  a.  tool,  like 
a  chisel  or  common  screw  driver  each 
tooth  Ls  inclined  directly  towards  the 
tangent  to  that  point  of  the  circle,  into 
which  it  is  set,  till  the  inclination  is 
such  that  the  tooth  and  tangent  form 
an  angle  of  abomt  55  or  60  degrees.  If 
this  inclination  be  greater,  the  teeth 
will  not  take  sufficient  hold  of  the  cot- 
ton, if  it  'be  less  there  will  be  more  dif- 
ficutly  in  disengaging  the  cotton  from 
the  teeth,  af:er  iit  is  separated  from  the 
seeds. 

When  the  .eeth  are  all  set  they  should 
be  cut  of  tan  equal  length.  In  order  for 
this,   take  a     crooked     guage,     Fig.     S, 


SUBSTITUTED     PATENT 


all  inclined  the  same  way  and  in  such 
a  manner,  that  the  angle  included  be- 
tween the  tooth  and  a  tangent  drawn 
from  a  point  into  which  the  tooth  is 
driven,  will  be  about  55  or  60  degrees. 
The  gudgeons  of  the  cylinder  run  in 
brass  boxes,  each  of  which  is  in  two 
parts,  one  of  which  is  fixed  in  the  wood 
of  the  frame  and  the  other  is  confined 
down  upon  the  axis   with  screws. 


450  APPENDIX. 

ORIGINAL  PATENT.  SUBSTITUTED    PATENT, 

having  two  prongs,  Q,  R,  the  curvature 
o?  which  corresponds  with  that  of  the 
cylinder.  'This  guage  is  merely  a  crook- 
ed fo<rk,  the  thickness  of  whose  prongs 
or  tines,  as  represented  between  S 
and  T,  Pig.  9,  equalizes  the  reng:h 
o«f  the  teeth,  and  is  applied  to  the 
cylinder,  with  one  tine  on  each 
side  of  an  annular  row.  With  a 
pair  of  cutting  pliers,  cut  the  iteeth  1,  :;. 
3  and  6,  off  even  with  the  guag?, 
then  slide  italong  to  6,  7,  S,  &c,  and 
so  proceed  till  you  have  trimmed  ail 
the  teeth  to  an  equal  length.  This  done 
put  the  eylender  into  a  lathe  and  with 
a  file  bring  the  teeth  to  a  kind  of  an- 
gular point,  resembling  a  wire  flatted 
and  cut  obliquely.  After  the  teeth  are 
brought  to  a  proper  shape,  smooth 
them  with  a  polishing  file  and  the  cyl- 
ender  will  be  finished. 

Remark.  Though  the  dimensions  of 
the  cylender  may  be  varied  at  pleasure, 
yet  it  is  thought  that  thoise  described 
are  the  best,  being  more  easily  made 
and  kept  in  repair,  than  those  of  a 
larger  size.  The  timber  should  be 
quarter  stuff,  i.  e.,  a  quarter  of  the 
trunk  of  the  tree,  otherwise  it  will 
crack  in  seasoning.  It  must  also  be  of 
wood  of  an  equal  density,  such  as 
beech,  maple,  black  birch,  &c.  In  oak 
and  many  other  kinds  of  wood,  there 
are  spaces  between  the  grains  which 
are  not  so  hard  as  the  grains  them- 
selves; and  the  teeth  driven  into  these 
spaces  would  not  stand  sufficiently 
firm,  while  the  grains  are  so  hajrd  as 
to  prevent  the  teeth  from  being  driven 
without  bending. 


APPENDIX. 


451 


ORIGINAL    PATENT.  SUBSTITUTED    PATENT. 

3.  The  braastwoafc,  Fig.  2,  and  B,  Fig.        3d.    The  breastwork    is    fixed    above 
1  and  Fig-.  2,  is  fixed  above  the  cylender    the   cylinder,    parallel    and     contiguous 
parallel   and    contiguous    to   the     same,    to  the  same.  It  has  transverse  grooves 
It    has   transverse  grooves   or  openings    or  openings  through  which  the  iwr  of 
1,  2,  3,  4,  &c,  through  which  the  rows-    teeth  pass  as  the  cylinder  revolves  and 
rows  of  teeth  pass  as  the  cylender  re-    its   use   is    to   obstruct    the  seeds   while 
vclves:    and     its     use     is     to     obstruct    the   cotton   is   carried   forward   through 
the     seeds    while     the     cotton     is     car-    the   grooves    by   the    teeth.    The    thick- 
ried    forward      through      the      grooves    ness  of  the  breastwork  is  two  and  half 
by  the  teeth.    That  side  otf  the  breast-    or  three  inches  and  the  under  side  of  it 
work  next  the  cylinder  should  be  made    is  made  of  iron  or  brass, 
of   brass    or   iron,    that    it    may   be    the 
moire   durable.     Its    face    or    surface    A, 
X,  Fig.  1,  ought  to  make  an  angle  with 
the  tangent  X,  Z,  less  than  50  degrees. 

A  tooth   in   passing  from   K  up   to    the 

breastwork   B,    fastens   itself     upon     a 
certain   quantity   of   cotton,     which     is 

still    connected     with     its     seeds.     The 

seeds  being  too  large    to   pass    through 

the  breastwork  are   there  stopped,  while 

the   cotton  is  forced   thro'   the     groove 

and  disengaged  from  the     seeds.    Now 

if  the  'point   of  the     oath    enters     the 

groove   before   the   root,   or     that     part 

nixt   the  cylinder     it     carries     through 

all   which  it  ha,s     collected     in     earning 

from     K;     but     if     the   root       of       tne 

tooth    enter    the      groove      before      the 

point,  pant  of  the  cotton  fastened  on  it, 

will    slide    off,    and    this    latter    case    is 

preferable  as  it  helps   to  give    the   cot- 
ton a  rotary  motion  in  the  hopper.  The 

thickness   of    the    breastwork,     or     the 

distance  from  A  to  I,  Fig.  1,  should  be 

about  2%  or  3  inches,  in  proportion  to 

the  length  of  the  cotton.     It  should  be 

such   that   the  cotton  which   is   carried 

through  by  the  teeth  may     be     discon- 


452  APPENDIX. 

ORIGINAL  PATENT.  SUBSTITUTED     PATENT. 

nected  from-from  that  which  is  left  in 
the  hopper,  before'  it  leaves  the  grooves, 
otherwise  that  which  is  carried  partly 
through  the  breastwork  will  be  by  the 
motion  of  that  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected in  the  hoppeir  become  so  collect- 
ed and  knotted  at  I,  as  to  obstruct  and 
bend    the    teeth.** 

The  under  part  of  the  breastwork 
next  the  cylender,  ought,  as  has  before 
been  observed,  to  be  made  of  iron  or 
brass.  It  may  be  cast  either  in  a  solid 
piece  and  the  openings  for  the  passage 
of  the  teeth  cut  with  a  saw  and  files, 
or  in  as  many  parts  as  there  are 
spaces  between  the  several  rows  of 
teeth  in  the  cylender  and  in  form  of 
Fig.  12,  and  the  pieces  set,  by  means 
of  a  shank  or  tenon,  in  a  groove  run- 
ing  lengthwise  along  the  wooden  part 
of  the  breastwork. 

The  breastwork  described,  if  proper- 
ly constructed,  will  it  is  thought  an- 
swer every  valuable  purpose.  But  I 
shall  mention  one  of  a  different  con- 
struction which  I  have  used  with  suc- 
cess, and  is  made  in  the  following 
manner: 

Form  a  breastwork  of  the  same 
shape  and  dimensions  as  the  one  be- 
fore described,  entirely  of  wood.  Place 
a  bar  of  wood  one  inch  below  the  cyl- 
ender and  parallel  to  it,  then  with  straps 
or  ribs  of  iron,  brass  or  tin  plate  con- 
nect the  breastwork  of-of  wood  with  the 
bar  'bellow. 


**If  the  perforation  afoout  3-16  of  an 
inch  be  made  through  the  breastwork 
at  the  upper  part  or  end  of  each 
groove,  the  metal  part  need  not  be 
more  than  %  of  an  inch  thick. 


APPENDIX. 


453 


ORIGINAL  PATENT. 
The  ribs  or  straps  must  be  so  ap- 
plied as  to  sit  close  to  the  surface  of 
the  cylender  between  the  wooden 
breastwork  and  the  bar,  and  if  of  a 
width  that  will  permit  them  to  work 
freely  betweenHhe  annularirorws of  tee  th. 
That  end  of  each  strap  which  is  fas- 
tened to  the  breastwork  should  divide 
widthwise  into  two  parts,  one  of  which 
should  pass  along  the  lower  surface  of 
the  breastwork,  and  the  other  run  up 
its  front.  In  Fig-.  14,  B,  is  the  wooden 
breastwork.  D,  the  bar  below  the  cyl- 
ender, the  dotted  circle  B,  B,  the  cylen- 
der E,  E,  the  strap  C,  the  place 
where  the  strap  divides,  and  A,  A,  A, 
•wood  screws  or  nails  with  which  the 
strap  is  made  fast  to  the  bar  and 
breastwork. 

4.  The  clearer  C,  Fig.  1,  is  construct- 
ed in  '.he  following  manner:  Take  an 
iron  axis  perfectly  similar  to  that  de- 
scribed as  extending  through  the  cyl- 
ender, except  that  it  need  not  be  so 
large  nor  fitted  for  the  application  of 
a  winch.  Frame  together  crosswise 
at  right  angles  two  pieces  of  timber  of 
suitable  size  and  of  a  length  about 
equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  cylenders, 
so  as  to  make  the  four  arms  equal  :n 
kngth,  and  insert  the  axis  through  the 
centers  of  two  crosses  or  frames  of  this 
kind.  Let  their  distance  from  each 
other  be  one-third  of  the  length  of 
the  cylender  and  m'ake  them  fast  on 
the  axis.  The  arms  of  the  two  crosses 
are  then  connected  by  four  pieces,  of 
the  same  length  of  the  cylender,  equi- 
distant from  the  axis,  and  parallel  to 
the  same,   and  to  each   other.     In    each 


SUBSTITUTED  PATENT. 


4th.  The  clearer  is  placed  horizon- 
tal with  and  parallel  to  the  cylinder. 
Its  length  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
cylinder,  and  its  diameter  is  propor- 
tioned by  convenience.  There  are  (two, 
four  or  more  brushes  or  rows  of  bris- 
tles, fixed  in  the  surface  of  the  clearer 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  ends  of  tlhe 
bristles  will  sweep  the  surface  of  the 
cylinder. 


454  APPENDIX. 

ORIGINAL   PATENT.  SUBSTITUTED  PATENT. 

of  the  parallel  pieces,  on  the  outside 
or  side  opposite  the  axis,  a  channel  is 
made  lengthwise  for  the  reception  of 
a  brush.  The  brush  is  made  of  hog's 
bristles,  sec  in  a  manner  somewhat 
similar  to  that  of  setting  the  reeds  in 
a  weaver's  sleigh.  Between  two  strips 
of  wood  about  %  of  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness and  half  an  inch  in  breadth,  is 
placed  a  small  quantity  of  bristles; 
then  a  strong  thread  or  twine  is  wound 
round  the  sticks,  close  to  the  bristles, 
then  another  quantity  of  bristles  is 
inserted,  etc.,  till  a  brush  is  formed, 
equal  in  length  to  the  cylender.* 

The  bristles  on  the  side  A,  A,  Fig.  6, 
are  smeared  'with  pitch  or  rosin  and 
seared  down  with  a  hot  iron  even  with 
the  wood,  to  prevent  them  from  draw- 
ing out.  On  the  other  side  they  are 
cut  With  a  chisel  to  the  length  of  aibout 
one  inch  from  the  'wood.  A  brush  of 
this  kind  is  fixed  in  each  of  the  before 
mentioned  channels. 

The    boxes   as    well   as    axis     of     the        Its    axis   and    boxes    are     similar     to 
clearer,  are  like  those  of    the    cylender,    those  of  the  cylinder.    It  is  turned  by 
parallel   to  it   and   at   such   a   distance,    means  of  a  band  and  Whirls,  moves  in 
that  while  it  revolves   the  ends  of  the 
bristles  strike   with   a   small   degree   of 
friction  on  the  cylender's     surface.     Its 
use   is    to    brush    the    cotton    from    the 
teeth  after    it  is    forced     through    the 
grooves  and   separates   from   its   seeds. 

It    turns  in  a   direction    contrary   from    a   conitrary  direction  from   the  cylinder 
that  of  the  cylender,  and  should  so  far    by   which   it   is  put   in   motion,   and   so 


*  (Perhaps  nailing  these  straps  to- 
gether would  be  better  than  winding 
them   with  twine.) 


APPENDIX. 


455 


ORIGINAL    PATENT.  SUBSTITUTED     PATENT. 
■outrun   it,   as  completely   to   sweep     its  far  outruns  it,   as  to  sweep   the  cotton 
whole  surface.*  from  the  teeth  as  fast  as  it  is  carried 
A  clearer  with   two   brushes  may  be  through      the      breastwork.    The    perl- 
made    by    simply    screwing     upon     the  phery   of    the   whirls   is   spherical     and 
Fig.  4,   and  another  the    band    a   broad    strap   of   leather, 
the     opposite     side, 


axis   the  board  K, 
similar    board    on 
which  leave  space; 
the  brushes,  S,  S. 


i  for  the  insertion  of 
'The  cleaner  may  be 
also  formed  of  a  cylender  with  'grooves 
running  lengthwise  in  it  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  brushes;  or  in  any  other 
way,    which   may  be   found   convenient. 

The  number  of  brushes  in  the  clear- 
er is  not  material;  but  let  it  be  ob- 
served that  the  distance  from  E  to  E, 
Fig.  1,  between  the  brushes,  must  be 
at  least  4  or  5  inches,  otherwise  the 
cotton  will  wind  up  'round  the  clearer. 
The  surface  of  the  clearer  moving 
much  faster  than  that  of  the  cylender, 
the  brushes  sweep  off  the  cotton-cotton 
from  the  teeth.  The  air  put  in  motion 
by  the  clearer,  and  the  centrifugal 
force  of  the  cotton  disengage  it  from 
the  brushes.  Note.  It  is  best  to  set 
the  brushes  in  the  grooves  in  such  a 
manner,  that  the  bristles  will  make  an 
angle  of  about  20  or  25  degrees,  with 
the  diameter  of  the  clearer,  in  the  di- 
rection E,  O,  Fig.  1.  By  that  means 
tht-  bristles  fall  more  perpendicularly 
on  the  teeth,  strike  them  more  forci- 
bly, and  clear  off  the  cotton  more  ef- 
fectually. 

The  clearer  is  put  in  motion  by  the 
cylender,   by     means     of     a     band     and 

*(The  brushes  may  be  fixed  in  a 
stock  which  is  movable  by  screws  so  as 
to  bring  them  nearer  or  carry  them  far- 
ther from   the  cylender.) 


456  APPENDIX. 

ORIGINAL  PATENT.  SUBSTITUTED  PATENT. 

whirls.  These  whirls  are  plain  'wheels 
of  solid  wood,  about  2%  or  3  inches 
thick,  their  periphery  is  a  spherical 
surface  swelling-  at  the  centre,  and 
and  sloping-  off  at  the  edges.  To  give 
them  a  proper  shape,  take  a  perfect 
globe  of  the  same  diameter  as  your 
intended  whirl;  inscribe  upon  it  a  cir- 
cle dividing-  it  into  two  equal  parts; 
then  cut  the  globe  on  each  side,  paral- 
lel to  the  plane  of  the  circle,  and  at 
the  distance  from  it,  of  half  the  thick- 
ness of  your  whirl.  On  these  whirls 
runs  a  leather  band,  the  breadJ.h 
of  which  answers  to  the  thickness  of 
the  whirls.  The  band  may  be  .broader 
or  narrower  and  the  whirls  thicker  or 
thinner  in  proportion  as  the  resistance 
to  be  overcome  is  greater  or  less.  The 
reason  for  giving-giving  the  whirls  this 
shape  is  to  secure  them  the  better 
from  being  unhanded.  A  band  of  this 
kind  always  inclines  to  the  highest 
place  on  the  whirl,  and  is  much  less 
liable  to  be  cast  off  from  the  work, 
when  it  runs  on  a  special  surface,  than 
when  it  runs  in  a  groove  in  the  peri- 
phery of  the  whirl. 

The  whirls  are  four  in  number  and 
must  be  so  arranged  as  to  make  their 
central  planes  coincident.  The  whirl 
G,  Fig.  3  is  fixed  upon  the  end  of  the 
axis  of  the  cylender  without  the  frame, 
and  the  button  A,  Fig.  5,  is  screwed 
on  with  the  screw  driver,  B,  to  keep 
the  whirl  in  its  place.  L  is  put  upon 
the  axis  of  the  clearer  in  the  same 
manner.  P,  Q,  whose  axe>3  are  pivots 
made  fast  in  the  frame,  are  false 
whirls    added    for   two    purposes.     1.  To 


APPENDIX.  457 

ORIGINAL  PATENT.  SUBSTITUTED  PATENT. 

make  the  clearer  turn  in  a  contrary 
direction  from  the  cyler.der.  2.  For  the 
purpose  of  doubling  the  band  more 
completely  round  the  small  whirl  L, 
so  as  to  bring  a  greater  portion  of  the 
whirl's  surface  into  contact  with  the 
band,  increase  the  friction  and  conse- 
quently turn  the  whirl  more  forcibly. 
The  first  of  these  purposes  might  be 
accomplished  by  the  addition  of  one 
false  whirl,  but  the  second  not  so  ful- 
ly without  two.  The  dotted  line  W,  V", 
represents  the  band.  The  diameters  of 
the  whirls  E,  L,  should  be  s>o-so  pro- 
portioned as  to  produce  a  proper  de- 
gree of  velocity  in  the  clearer.  The 
axis  of  the  whirl  Q,  is  fixed  in  a  plate 
of  iron,  which  is  movable  in  a  groove 
in  the  side  of  the  frame  and  the  band 
is  made  tighter  or  looser  by  moving 
the  plate.  This  arrangement  of  whirls 
produces  the  same  movement  as  a  cog 
wheel  and  pinion,  with  much  less  fric- 
tion and  expence,  and  without  the  rat- 
ling noise,  which  is  always  caused  by 
the  quick  motion  of  cog  wheels. 

5.  One   side   of   the   hopper   is   formed        5th.     One     side     of     the     hopper       is 
by  the  breastwork,  the  two  ends  by  the    formed    by    the    breastwork,      the      two 
frame,    and    the    other   side   is    movable    ends  by  the  frame,  and   the  other  side 
so   that,   as  the   quantity   of  cotton   put    is    movable     from      and      towards      the 
in   at  one  time   decreases,   it   may  slide    breastwork,   so  as   to  make  the  hopper 
up   nearer   the   cylinder,   ar.d   make   the    more   or  less   capacious, 
hopper  narrower.     This  is  necessary  in  _ 
order   to   give    the   seeds   a   rotary    mo- 
tion   in    the   hopper,    by    bringing    them 
repeatedly   up   to   the  cylinder  till   they 
are  entirely  stripped  of  the  cotton.     D, 
Fig.  1,  is  a  section  of  the  movable  part 
of  the   hopper.     The   part   from   H    to   I 
should  be  concave  on  the  side  next  the 


458 


APPENDIX. 


ORIGINAL    PATENT. 


SUBSTITUTED  PATENT. 


breastwork,  or  rather  it  should  be  a 
portion  of  a  hollow  cylender.  Between 
H  and  T,  is  a  crate  of  wire  through 
which  the  sand,  and  the  seeds  as  soon 
as  they  are  thoroughly  cleansed,  fall 
into  a  receptacle  below.  The  crate 
may  be  either  fixed  in  the-the  frame 
or  connected  with  the  movable  part  of 
the  hopper.  The  wires  of  which  the 
crate  is  made  should  be  large  and 
placed  perpendicular  to  the  cylender, 
that  the  cotton  may  turn  the  more 
easily  in   the  hopper. 

A  few  additional  remarks  will  suf- 
ficiently shew  the  construction,  use 
and  operation  of  this  machine.  The 
cotton  is  put  in  the  hopper,  I,  D,  H,  K, 
A,  U,  S,  Fig  1,  in  as  large  a  quanti.y  as 
the  cylinder  will  put  in  motion.  Some  of 
the  seeds  become  stripped  sooner  than 
others.  If  ii  be  black  seed  cotton,  the 
seeds  become  smooth,  will  most  of 
them  fall  through  the  crate  as  scon  as 
they  are  clean,  but  a  considerable  part 
of  the  green  seeds  which  they  are  thus 
denominated  from  being  covered  with 
a  kind  of  green  coat,  resembling  vel- 
vet will  continue  in  the  hopper.  It  will 
not  answer  therefor  to  supply  it  grad- 
ually as  the  quantity  in  it  diminishes, 
because  the  seeds  will  isOon  grow  cum- 
brous and  by  their  constant  interven- 
tion prevent  the  teeth  from  attaching 
themselves  to  the  cotton  so  fast  as  they 
otherwise  would,  but  one  hopper  full 
must  be  finished,  the  movable  part 
drawn  back,  the  hopper  cleared  of 
seeds  and  then  supplied  with  cotton 
anew. 

There  is  a  partition  Y,  W,  under  the 


The  cotton  is  put  into  the  hopper, 
carried  thro'  the  breastwork  by  the 
teeth,  brushed  off  from  the  teeth  by 
the  clearer  and  flies  off  from  the  clear- 
er, with  the  assistance  of  the  air,  by 
its  own     centrifugal     force.     The     ma- 


APPENDIX.  459 

ORIGINAL   PATENT.  SUBSTITUTED     PATENT. 

cy  lender  on  the  left-left  hand  of  which 

or  the  side    beneath     the    hopper,     the 

seeds  fall,  and     the     clean     cotton    on 

the  other  side.    There  may  be  a  recep- 
tacle for  the  clean  cotton  in  the  frame, 

but    it   is   best     to     have     an     opening 

through    the    wall    or    partition    into    a 

contiguary  room,  then  place  the  end  of 

the  machine  against   this   opening   and 

let  the  cotton  fly  into  a  close  room;  or 

it  may  fall  through  an  opening  in   the 

floor  into  a  room  below. 
This   machine     may     be     turned     by    chine  is  turned  by  water,   horses  or  in 

horses  or  water  with  the  greatest  ease,    any  other   way  as   is  most    convenient. 

It   requires   no   other   attendance,    than 

putting  the  cotton  into  the  hopper  with 

a  basket  or  fork,  narrowing  the  hopper 

when  necessary  and     letting     out     the 

seeds  after  they  are  clean.    One  of  its 

peculiar  excellencies  is,  that  it  cleanses 

the     kind     called     green     seed     cotton 

almost   as   fast   as   the    black   seed.     If 

the   machinery    is   moved    by    water    it 

is   thought   it    will   diminish    the     usual 

labor  of  cleaning  the  green  seed  cotton 

at   least   forty-nine   fiftieths. 

There  are  several  modes  of  making 
the  various  parts  of  this  machine. 
Which  togethtr  with  it  heir  particular 
shape  and  formation  are  pointed  out 
and  explained  in  a  description  with 
drawings,  attested  as  the  act  directs 
and  lodged  in  the  office  of  the  Secre- 
The  foregoing  is  a  description  of  the 
machine  for  cleansing     cotton     alluded 

to  in  a  petition  of  the  subscriber,  datt:d 

Philadelphia,  June  20th,  1793,  and 
lodged  in  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of 
State,  all  alleging  that  he,  the  sub- 
scriber,   is   the   inventor   of     said     ma- 


460 


APPENDIX. 


ORIGINAL   PATENT, 
chine,  and  signifying  his   desire  of  ob- 
taining an  exclusive  property     in     the 
same.  ELI    WHITNEY. 

Signed  in  presence  of 

CHAtrXCEY     GOODRICH, 
Counsellor   at   Law,    Hartford. 

JOHN   ALLEN, 
Counsellor  at  Law.   Litchfield. 

State  of  Connecticut,   ss.   City  of  [New 

Haven. 

I,  Elizur  Goodrich,  Esq.,  Alderman 
for  said  City,  and  Notary  Public,  by 
lawful  authority  admitted  and  sworn, 
residing  in  said  City,  and  by  law  au- 
thorized to  administer  oaths,  do  here- 
by certify,  declare  and  make  known  to 
whom  it  doth  or  may  concern:  That 
at  said  City  on  the  twenty-eighth  day 
of  October,  one  thousand,  seven  hun- 
dred and  ninety-three,  Eli  Whitney, 
of  the  county  of  Worcester,  in  the 
commonwealth  of  Massachusetts,  now 
residing  in  said  City,  personally  ap- 
peared before  me,  the  said  Alderman 
and  Notary,  and  made  solemn  bath, 
that  he  does  verily  believe  that  he  the 
said  Whitney,  is  the  true  inventor  and 
discoverer  of  the  machine  for  ginning 
coitt'on,  a  description  whereof  is 
hereto  annexed  by-by  me,  the  said  Al- 
derman and  Notary,  by  my  seal  Notari- 
al, and  that  he,  the  said  Whitney,  verily 
believes  that  a  machine  of  similar  con- 
struction hath  never  before  been 
known  or  used. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I,  the  said 
Alderman  and  Notary,  have  here- 
unto set  my   hand   and   seal   at   the 


SUBSTITUTED     PATENT. 


tetry  of  State.  ELI  WHITNEY. 

Signed  in  presence  of 

CHAUNCEY   GOODRICH, 

Counsellor  at  Law,  Hartford. 
JOHN    ALLEiN, 
Counsellor  at  Law,   Litchfield. 

(Received   and   recorded   May   2,    1841r 
and  Ex'd  W.  G.  C.) 


APPENDIX.  461 


ORIGINAL    PATENT.  SUBSTITUTED  PATENT. 

city   aforesaid   on     the     day     above 
said. 
(L.S.)  EL.IZUR   GOODRICH, 

Alderman  and   Notary   Public. 

UNITED   STATES   OF    AMERICA. 
To    all    to   whom    these    Letters   Paten; 

shall  come: 

Whereas,  EZli  Whitney,  a  citizen  of  (NOTE.— Corresponding  clause  oc 
the  State  of  Massachusetts,  in  the  curs  at  the  beginning  of  this  paper.) 
United  States  hath  alleged  that  he 
has  invented  a  new  and  useful  im- 
provement in  the  mode  of  ginning  cot- 
ton, which  improvement  has  r.ot  been 
known  or  used  before  his  application, 
has  made  oath,  that  he  does  verily  be- 
lieve that  he  is  the  true  inventor  or 
discoverer  of  the  said  improvement, 
has  paid  into  the  Treasury  of  the  Unit- 
ed States,  the  sum  of  thirty  dollars, 
delivered  a  receipt  for  the  same  and 
presented  a  petition  to  the  Secretary 
of  State,  signifying  a  desire  of  ob- 
taining an  exclusive  property  in  the 
said  improvement,  and  praying  that  a 
patent  may  be  granted  for  that  pur- 
pose: These  are  therefore,  to  grant 
according  to  law,  to  the  said  Eli  Whit- 
ney, his  heirs,  administrators  or  as- 
signs, for  the  term  of  fourteen  years, 
from  the  sixth  day  of  'November  last, 
the  full  and  exclusive  right  and  liber- 
ty of  making,  constructing,  using  and 
vending  to  others  to  be  used  the  said 
improvement,  a  description  whereof  is 
given  in  the  words  of  the  said  Eli 
Whitney,  himself,  in  the  schedule- 
schedule  hereto  annexed  and  is  made  a 
part  of  these  presents. 

In     testimony     whereof,       I       have 


462 


APPENDIX. 


ORIGINAL    PATENT. 

caused  the  letters  to  be  made  pat- 
ent and  the  Steal  of  the  United 
States  to  be  hereunto  affixed. 

Given  under  my  hand  at  the  city 
of  Philadelphia,  this  fourteenth 
day  of  March,  in  the  year  of  our 
Lord,  one  thousand,  seven  hundred 
and  ninety-four,  and  of  the  Inde- 
pendence of  the  United  States  of 
America,  the  eighteenth. 
(L.    S.)  GEO.    WASHINGTON. 

By   the   President. 

E3DM.    RANDOLPH. 
City  of  Philadelphia,  to-wit: 

I  do  hereby  certify  that  the  fore- 
going' Letters  Patent  were  delivered  to 
me  on  the  fourteenth  day  of  March,  in 
the  year  of  our  Lord,  one  thousand, 
seven  hundred  and  ninety-four,  to  be 
examined.  That  I  have  examined  the 
same,  and  find  them  comformable  to 
:aw.  And  I  do  hereby  return  the  same 
to  the  Secretary  of  State,  within  fif- 
teen days  from  the  date  aforesaid,  to- 
wit:  On  this  same  fourteenth  day  of 
March,   in   the  year  aforesaid. 

WM.  BRADFORD. 
Attorney  General,  United  States. 
The  schedule  referred  to  in  these 
Letters  Patent  and  making  part  of  the 
same  containing  a  description  in  the 
words  of  the  said  Eli  Whitney  him- 
self of  an  improvement  in  the  mode  of 
ginning  cotton. 


APPENDIX. 


463 


Document  IV. 

In  Reply  Please  Refer  to 
C.   W.   K.        Letter  No.   8348. 
All   communications   should 

be  addressed  to 
"The  Commissioner  of  Patents,   Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 
Department  of  the  Interior, 
UNITED  STATES    PATENT    OFFICE, 
Washington,  D.  C,  January  IS,  1901. 

Mr.  D.  A.  Tompkir.is, 

United    States    Industrial  Commission, 
Bliss  Building,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Sir:— Your  letter  of  the  14th  instant 
has  been  received,  and  in  reply  Uhere- 
to  the  Commissioner  directs  me  to  say 
that  on  December  15,  1836,  a  fire  de- 
stroyed the  building  in  which  the 
Patent  Office  was,  with  all  the  models 
and  records  and  the  library.  By  an 
act  of  March  3,  1S37,  provision  was 
made  to  restore  the  specifications, 
drawings  and  models,  by  obtaining  du- 
plicates of  them  from  the  persons  pos- 
sessing the  originals,  for  which  pur- 
pose an  appropriation  of  $100,000  was 
made.  The  whole  number  of  models 
destroyed  was  about  7,000.  and  the 
records  covered  about  10,000  inven- 
tions. 'The  work  of  restoration  contin- 
ued for  twelve  years,  and  $88,237.32  was 
expended    out    of   the   amount    allowed. 

On  September  24,  1877,  the  roof  and 
model  rooms  and  contents  in  the  west 
and  north  wings  of  the  building  were 
destroyed  by  fire.  About  87,000'  models 
and  600,000  copies  of  drawings  were 
ruined  by  fire  and  water.  A  full  ac- 
count of  this  fire  was  published  in  the 
Official  Gazette  of  the  Patent  Office 
on  October  9,   1877. 

Very  respectfully, 
E.    V.   .SIHEPARD,    Chief   Clerk. 


Document  V. 

CERTIFIED  COPY  OF  BILL  OF  IN- 
JUNCTION AGAINST  FORT  & 
POWELL  FOR  INFRINGEMENT 
OF  GIN  PATENT. 

This  paper  is  now  on  file  in  the  United 
States  Court  House,  Savannah,  Ga. 

To  the  honorable,  the  judges  of  the 
Circuit  Court  of  the  United  States  for 
the  district  of  Georgia: 

Humbly  complaining  shew  unto  your 
honors  your  orators,  E'li  Whitney,  of 
the  State  of  Connecticut,  and  Catha- 
rine Miller,  and  Lemuel  Kollock,  ex- 
ecutors of  the  last  will  and  testament 
of  Phineas  Miller,  deceased,  all  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States:  That  by 
virtue  of  an  act  of  the  Congress  of  the 
United  (States  entitled  an  act  to  pro- 
mote the  progress  of  useful  arts,  and 
to  repeal  the  act  heretofore  made  for 
that  purpose,  passed  the  twenty-first 
day  of  February,  in  the  year  of  our 
Lord,  one  thousand,  seven  hundred 
and  ninety-three,  letters  patent  'were 
issued  in  the  name  of  the  United 
States,  and  bearing  test  by  the  presi- 
dent, thereof,  on  the  fourteenth  day  of 
February,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord,  one 
thousand,  seven  hundred  and  ninety- 
four,  whereby  the  United  States  of 
America  did  grant  unto  your  orator, 
Eli  Whitney,  his  heirs,  administrators, 
and  assigns,  for  the  term  of  fourteen 
years,  from  the  sixth  of  November,  in 
the  year  of  our  Lord,  one  thousand, 
seven  hundred  and'  ninety-three,  the 
full  and  exclusive  right,  and  liberty  of 
making,  constructing,  Using  and  vend- 
ing to  others  to  be  used,  a  certain  new 
and  useful  improvement  in  the  art  of 
ginning  cotton,  which  improvement 
had  not  before  been  ikndwn  or  used, 
whereof  your  orator,  Eli  Whitney,  was 
the  original  inventor,  the  principle  of 
which  invention  consists  in  the  art  of 
extracting  the  cotton  from  the  seed  by 


464 


APPENDIX. 


means  of  teeth  composed  of  metal, 
which  teeth  are  attached  to  a  cylender, 
on  which  they  revolve,  passing 
through  grooves,  or  openings  of  a 
breastwork  too  narrow  to  admit  the 
seed,  through  which  grooves  the  cot- 
ton is  carried  by  the  telet'h  and  after 
passing  tihrough  is  .brushed  off  from 
the  teeth  'bya  clearer  or  brush;  ashy  the 
said  letters  patent  under  the  great  seal 
of  the  United  States,  bearing  date  the 
said  fourteenth  day  of  March,  seven- 
teen hundred  and  ninety-four,  (a  copy 
whereof  is  exhibit  A,  which  your  ora- 
tor prays  may  be  taken  a  part  of  this 
bill)  will  more  fully  appear. 

And  your  orators  further  shew  that 
on  the  twenty-first  day-day  of  June,  in 
the  year  of  our  Lord,  one  thousand, 
seven  hundred  and  ninety-four,  one  of 
your  orators,  Eli  iWhitraey,  being  sopcs- 
sessed  of,  and  entitled,  to  the  exclusive 
right  above  set  forth,  by  indenture 
bearing  date  on  the  day  last  men- 
tioned, by  virtue  of  the  fourth  section 
of  the  before  mentioned  act,  did  assign 
and  transfer  unto  Phineas  Miller,  one 
moiety,  or  half  part,  of  the  title  and 
interest  in  said  Invention,  which  he,  the 
said  Eli  Whitney  had  acquired  and 
held,  under,  and  by  virtue  of  the  said 
Letters  Patent,  as  by  the  said  inden- 
ture, executed,  and  recorded  in  the 
office  of  the  Secretary  of  State,  in  pur- 
suance of  said  act,  (a  copy  whereof  is 
exhibit  B)  will  more  fully  appear.  And 
your  orators  further  -shew,  that,  by  ar- 
ticles of  copartnership,  duly  made  and 
executed,  by  and  between  Eli  Whitney, 
one  of  your  orators,  and  Phineas  Mill- 
er, (who  hath  lately  departed  this  life) 
it  was,  on  the  twenty-first  day  of  June, 
in  the  year  last  aforesaid,  agreed  that 
all  concerns  which  in  any  way  re- 
spected the  employment  or  disposal,  of 
the  invention  and  improvement  in  gin- 
ning cotton  above  set  forth,  should  be 
conducted  under  the  firm  of  Miller  & 
Whitney,  and  that  by  virtue  of  the 
said     deed     of     assignment     and     arti- 


cles of  copartnership  and  of  the  afore- 
said statute  the  said  Phineas  Miller 
became  interested  with  a  joint  inter- 
est in  the  invention  and  in  the  exclu- 
sive right  thereto  attached  by  the  said 
Letters  Patent,  and  that  by  virtue 
thereof,  the  said  Phineas  Miller,  in  his 
life  time,  was,  and  your  orators,  ex- 
ecutors of  the  last  will,  and  testament, 
of  the  said  Phineas,  since  his  death, 
now  are  placed  on  the  -same  footing 
with  the  said  Eli  Whitney,  the  original 
inventor,  both  as  to  right  and  respon- 
sibility. And  your  orators  further 
shew  to  your  honors,  that  by  the  act 
of  the  United  States,  above  stated,  and 
also  by  an  act  passed  the  seventeenth 
day  of  April,  in  the  year  eighteen  hun- 
dred, entitled  an  act  to  extend  the 
privilege  of  obtaining  patents  for  use- 
ful discoveries  and  inventions  to  cer- 
tain persons  therein  mentioned,  and  to 
enlarge  and  define  the  penalties  for 
violating-  the  rights  of  patentees',  it  is 
made  and  declared  unlawful  where  a 
patent  shall  be  or  shall  have  been 
granted,  pursuant  to  either  of  the  said 
acts,  for  any  person  'without  the  con- 
sent of  the  patentee,  his  or  her  execu- 
tors, administrators  or  assigns  first  00- 
tained  in  writing  to  make,  de- 
vise, use  or  sell,  the  thing  whereof  the 
exclusive  right  is  secured  to  said  pat- 
entee by  such  patent.  And  your  ora- 
tors further  shew,  that,  by  virtue  of 
the  aforesaid  statutes,  and  by  the 
sanction  and  authority  of  the  afore- 
said Letters  Patent,  Eli  Whitney,  one 
of  your  orators,  and  the  said  Phineas 
Miller,  in  his  life  time,  were,  and  your 
orators,  that  is  iosay,  thesaii';dEli  Whit- 
ney survivor,  as  aforesaid,  and  the 
said  Catharine  Miller  and  Lemuel  Kol- 
lock,  executors  of  the  said  Phineas 
Miller,  now  are  and  continue  to  be  in- 
vested with  and  entit/led  unto,  and  ought 
of  right  to  have  hold  and  peaceably 
enjoy  the  exclusive  right  and  privilege 
of  making,  devising,  using  and  selling 
to   others   to  be   used,   gins   constructed 


APPENDIX. 


465 


on  the  plan  and  according  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  said  invention  for  the 
term  of  years  limited  by  the  said  pat- 
ent, according  to  the  true  intent  and 
meaning-  of  the  acts  of  Congress  and 
Letters  Patent,  as  above  stated.  And 
your  orators  charge  that  no  machine 
of  a  similar  construction  to  the  one  for 
which  the  said  Eli  Whitney  hath  ob- 
tained a  patent  was  ever  invented,  or 
used  in  the  United  States,  Georgia,  or 
elsewhere  for  ginning  cotton,  until  in- 
vented by  the  said  Eli  Whitney;  on  the 
•contrary,  the  only  mode,  method  and 
device,  used  in  Georgia,  or  elsewhere 
for  extracting  green  seed  as  well  as 
black  seed  co.ton  from  the  seed, 
was  by  roller  gins,  which  are  en- 
tire dissimilar  in  their  principles  from 
the  present  machine  of  your  orator. 
And  your  orators  do  further  shew  to 
your  honors,  and  expressly  charge  that 
Arthur  Fort  and  John  Powell,  who  are 
citizens  of  the  State  of  Georgia,  not  re- 
garding the  right  thus  constitutionally 
and  legally  vested  in  the  said  Eli 
Whitney  and  Phineas  Miller,  their  rep- 
resentatives and  assigns  have  pro- 
cured, and  since  the  seventeenth  day 
of  April,  in  the  year  eighteen  hundred, 
have  used  and  still  continue  to  use  a 
machine  for  ginning  or  cleaning  cotton, 
•upon  the  principle  of  the  said  improve- 
ment and  invention,  that  is  to  say,  a 
machine-machine  for  extracting  cotton 
from  the  seed  by  means  of  metal- 
lic teeth  or  points,  attached  to, 
•and  revolving  on  a  cylender  and  pass- 
ing through  grooves  or  openings  of  a 
breastwork,  too  narrow  to  admit  the 
seed,  through  which  grooves  the 
•cotton  is  carried  by  the  teeth,  and 
after  passing  through  is  brushed  off 
from  the  teeth  by  a  cleaner  or  brush, 
without  the  license,  assent,  or  permis- 
sion of  the  said  Eli  Whitney,  or  of  the 
said  Phineas  Miller,  in  his  life  time, 
or  of  the  executors  of  the  said  Phineas 
Miller,  since  his  death.  And  your  or- 
.ators   further   shew   that    your   orator, 


Eli  Whitney,  and  the  said  Phineas 
Miller,  in  his  life  time,  have  often  ap- 
plied to  the  said  Arthur  Fort  and 
John  Powell  in  a  friendly  manner,  so- 
liciting them  to  desist  from  the  use 
of  the  said  machine,  and  the  infraction 
of  the  said  exclusive  right,  not  having 
obtained  a  license,  or  permission  from 
your  orator  and  the  said  Phineas  to 
use  the  same.  And  your  orator  and 
the  said  Phineas  well  hoped  that  the 
said  Arthur  Fort  and  John  Powell 
would  have  ceased  to  use  the  said  ma- 
chine and  have  made  compensation  to 
the  said  patentees  for  the  violation  of 
their  patent  right,  as  in  justice  and 
equity  they  ought  to  have  done. 

But  now  so  it  is,  may  it  please  your 
honors,  that  the  said  Arthur  Fort  and 
John  Powell,  combining  and  confeder- 
ating with  divers  other  persons,  yet 
unknown  to  your  orators,  'whose 
names  when  discovered,  your  orators 
pray  may  be  inserted  in  this  bill,  with 
apt  words  to  charge  them,  designing 
and  intending  to  oppose  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States,  as  well  as 
the  government  and  laws  established 
and  enacted  under  its  sanction,  and 
for  this  purpose  designing  by  their 
popular  but  evil  example  to  induce  and 
promote  a  general  violation  of  their 
exclusive  right  among  the  citizens  of 
the  iSltate  of  Georgia  and  thereby  de- 
prive the  patentees  of  its  advantages, 
have  by  some  fraudulent,  surreptitious 
means,  unknown  to  your  orators,  ob- 
tained, and  do  continually  without  any 
license  or  permission  from  the  paten- 
tees, use  the  invention  for  separating 
cotton  from  the  seed  above  set  forth, 
whereof  the  exclusive  right  is  vested 
in  your  orators,  as  aforesaid.  And  that 
the  said  Arthur  Fort  and  John  Powell 
do  absolutely  refuse  to  discontinue  the 
use  thereof,  at  some  times  pretending 
that  the  machine  above  described  is 
not  a  useful  invention,  that,  for  this 
reason  the  patent  was  fraudulently  ob- 
tained, and  ought  to  be  disregarded  in 


466 


APPENDIX, 


a  court  of  equity.  Whereas,  your  ora- 
tors do  allege  and  charge,  that  the  in- 
vention and  improvement  aforesaid, 
was  the  first  and  original  method  in- 
vented for  separating  the  species 
which  is  termed  the  green  seed  cotton 
from  the  seed,  that  until  this  invention 
was  brought  into  use  the  species  of 
cotton  was  not,  and  could  not  be  ex- 
tensively cultivated  for  want  of  a 
mode  of  separating  it  from  the  seed, 
and  that  the  success  of  this  invention 
alone  has  induced  and  promoted  the 
culture  of  that  staple,  by  which  the 
citizens  of  the  Southern  t Sates,  have 
within  a  few  years  past  been  greatly 
enriched.  And  at  other  times  the  said 
defendants  and  their  confederates  pre- 
tend, that  the  said  machine  was  not 
originally  invented  by  the  said  E.Ii 
"Whitney,  but  was  in  use  before  the 
said  Letters  Patent  were  issued. 
Whereas,  the  fact  is,  and  your  orators 
expressly  charge,  that  the  principle  of 
the  said  machine,  and  the  mode  of  ap- 
plication above  stated,  and  particular- 
ly defined  in  the  description  annexed 
to  the  said  Letters  Patent,  were  orig- 
inally invented  and  discovered  by  the 
said  Eli  Whitney.  At  other  times  they 
pretend  that  the  said  Eli  Whitney,  one 
of  your  orators,  obtained  the  said  Let- 
ters Patent  for  the  discovery  of  some 
other  person,  whereas,  your  orators 
allege  that  the  contrary  is  true  and 
that  the  said  defendants  and  their  con- 
federates have  not,  with  all  their  ex- 
ertions and  researches  to  injure  your 
orators,  been  able  to  produce  any  dis- 
covery which  is  materially  similar 
even  in  principle,  and  much  less  in  the 
application  of  principle  to  the  purpose 
and  use  designated  by  the  said  Letters 
Patent.  And  it  is  also  pretended 
by  the  said  defendants  and  their  con- 
federates that  the  machine  used  by 
them  contains  in  it  an  improvement 
in  the  principle  of  the  machine  invent- 
ed by  the  said  Eli  Whitney,  of  which 
your  orators  have  the   exclusive  right, 


that  is  to  say  teeth  cut  into  circular 
pieces  of  metal,  instead  of  teeth  made 
from  wire,  inserted  into  the  cylendeo-. 
Whereas  your  orators  charge  that  if 
such  alteration  is  an  improvement  in 
the  principle  yet  it  does  not  entitle  the 
inventor  of  such  improvement  nor  any 
other  person  to  use  the  machine  orig- 
inally invented.  And  whereas  also 
your  orators  charge  that  the  alteration 
above  stated  makes  no  alteration  or 
improvement  in  the  principle,  but  is 
merely  a  change  in  the  form  of  that 
part  of  the  machine,  and  that  in  the 
operation  of  the  machine  the  effects- 
of  the  points  or  teeth  indented  into  sol- 
id pieces  of  metal  is  precisely  the  same 
as  that  of  teeth  composed  of  wire  and 
inserted  in  the  cyle-nder.  And  the  said 
defendants  and  their  confederates  set 
up  various  pretenses  unjustly  and  un- 
lawfully to  use  said  invention,  in  vio- 
lation of  the  patent  right  of  your  ora- 
tors, and  at  the  same  time  to  destroy 
the  benefits  which  otherwise  would  re- 
sult from  the  same.  All  which  actions 
and  doings  and  pretenses  of  the  said 
Arthur  Fort  and  John  Powell  and  their 
confederates  are  contrary  to  equity 
and  good  conscience  and  tend  to  the 
manifest  injury  of  your  orators.  In 
consideration  wherof  and.  for  as  much 
as  your  orators  cannot  restrain  the 
said  Arthur  Fort,  and  John  Powell 
from  the  unjust  use  of  the  said  inven- 
tion without  the  aid  and  interference 
of  the  equitable  jurisdiction  of  this 
honorable  court.  And  as  the  said  Ar- 
thur Fort  and  John  Powell  use  the 
said  machine  in  a  secret  and  clandes- 
tine manner  so  that  your  orator  can- 
not have  the  benefit  of  a  full  and  ef- 
fectual remedy  at  common  .law  against 
the  said  Arthur  Fort  and  John  Powell 
and  their  confederates  for  want  of 
proof  of  such  use  and  infringement, 
and  of  the  actual  injury  sustained 
thereby,  to  the  end  therefore  that  the 
said  Arthur  Fort  and  John  Powell  and 
their     confederates     when     discovered,. 


APPENDIX. 


467 


may  make  full,  true  and  perfect  an- 
swers upon  their  several  and  corporal 
oaths,  to  all  and  singular  t.he  matters 
herein  alleged,  as  fully  and  particular- 
ly as  if  the  same  were  herein  again 
repeated,  and  they  thereunto  interro- 
gated, and  more  especially  that  the 
said  Arthur  Fort  and  John  Powell  may 
respectively  answer,  whether  they 
have  not  used  a  machine  constructed 
upon  the  principle  above  set  forth,  for 
the  purpose  of  separating  cotton  from 
the  seed,  that  is  to  say,  a  machine  for 
extracting  cotton  from  the  seed,  by 
means  of  metallic  teeth,  or  points,  at- 
tached to  and  revolving  on  a  cylender, 
and  passing  through  grooves  or  open- 
ings of  a  breastwork,  too  narrow  to 
admit:  the  seed,  through  which  grooves 
the  cotton  is  carried  by  the  teeth  and 
after  passing  through  is  brushed  off 
from  the  teeth  by  a  cleaner  or  brush, 
at  which  period  they  commenced  the 
use  of  such  machine,  and  whether  they 
continue  to  use  the  same.  What  quan- 
tity of  cotton  he  has  ginned  therewith, 
of  how  many  circle  of  teeth  the  said 
gin  consisted,  whether  it  is  impelled 
by  water,  or  by  what  other  way.  And 
the  said  Arthur  Fort  and  John  Powell 
may  be  restrained  from  the  further 
use  .of  said  invention. 

[May  it  please  your  honors  to  grant 
to  your  orators  the  United  States  writ 
of  subpoena  to  be  directed  to  the  said 
Arthur  Fort  and  John  Powell,  com- 
manding them,  under  a  certain  penal- 
ty, therein  to  be  inserted,  personally 
to  appear  before  the  honorable  the 
judges  of  the  Circuit  Court  of  the 
United  States  for  the  district  of  Geor- 
gia, at  Savannah,  on  the  sixth  day  of 
May  next,  then  and  there  to  answer 
thf  premises,  and  to  stand  to,  and  abide 
such  order  and  decree  therein,  as  to 
the  said  judges  shiall  seem  agiieeable 
to  equity  and  good  conscience.  And 
may  it  also  please  your  honors  to 
grant  unto  your  orators  a  writ  of  in- 
junction to  be  directed  to  the  said  Ar- 


thur Fort  and  John  Powell,  their 
agents,  workmen  and  servants,  com- 
manding and  enjoining  them  and  each 
of  them  under  a  penalty  therein  to  be 
specified,  bo  be  levied  on  their  goods 
and  chattels-chattels,  lands  and  tene- 
ments from  henceforth  altogether  to 
desist  from  using  the  said  machine  and 
invention.  And  your  orators  shall  ever 
pray,  etc. 

JOHN   T.    NOEL,, 
oif  Counsel  wit'h  Oompt. 

Eli  Whitney  being  duly  sworn 
maketh  oath  that  the  matters  of  fact 
stated  in  this,  his  bill,  as  far  as  concern 
hfe  own  act  and  deed  are  true  of  his 
own  knowledge  and  that  w'hat  relates 
to  the  act  and  deed  of  any  lother  person 
or  persons,  he  believes  to  be  true. 

ELI  WHITNEY. 

Sworn  bo  before  me  this  31st  Jan- 
uary,   1805. 

H.  M.  'STITEiS,   Clerk. 

ENDORSEMENT. 
District  of  Georgia,  Circuit  Court  of 
the  United  States.  In  Equity.  Eli 
Whitney  and  the  Executors  of  Phineas 
Miller,  deceased,  vs.  Arthur  Fort  and 
John  Powell,  esquires.  Bill  of  injunc- 
tion. 

Filed  16th   of  March,    1804.    Noel. 

Decree  for  perpetual  injunction  vs. 
Powell,    13th   May,    1S06. 

Decree  for  same  vs.  Arthur  Fort,  19th 
December,   1806.    Stites,   Clerk. 

FORT'S    ANSWER. 

IN  THE     ,SIXTfH     CIRCUIT    (COURT. 
BILL  FOR    INJUNCTION. 

Eli  Whitney  and  the  Executors  of 
(Phineas  Miller,  Complainants,  and 
Arthur  Fort  and  John  Powell,  De- 
fendants. 

The  answer  of  Arthur  Fort,  one  of 
the  defendants  to  the  bill  of  complaint 
of  Eli  Whitney  and  the  Executors  of 
Phineas    Miller,    complainants. 


APPENDIX. 


The  defendant,  Arthur  Fort,  saving 
and  reserving-  to  himself  now  and  at 
all  limes  hereafter  all  and  all  manner 
of  benefit  of  and  advantage  of  excep- 
tions to  the  manifold  uncertainties  and 
imperfections  in  the  complainant's 
said  bill  contained,  for  .answer  thereun- 
to, or  unto  so  much  therieof  as  material- 
ly concerns  this  defendant  to  mate  an- 
swer unto,  he  answereth  and  saith, 
That  he  believeth  it  to  be  true  that  the 
said  Eli  Whitney  did  obtain  Letters 
Patent  for  the  right  of  making,  using, 
constructing  and  vending  to  others  to 
be  used  a  certain  machine  purporting 
to  be  a  new  and  useful  improvement 
in  the  art  of  ginning  cotton,  and  that 
he  did  transfer  one  moiety  of  his  right 
thereunto  unto  the  said  Phineas  Miller, 
as  stated  in  the  bill  of  complaint  of  the 
said  complainants;  and  also  that  an 
act  was  passed  on  the  17th  uay  of 
April,  1800,  to  the  intent  and  purport 
expressed  in  the  said  bill  of  complaint, 
but  this  defendant  denies  it  to  be  true 
that  the  machine  pretended  to  be  in- 
vented by  the  said  Eili  Whitney  was  a 
useful  one  because  as  he  hath  been  in- 
formed the  cotton  ginned  or  cleaned 
thereby  was  materially  injured  in  its 
staple  and  texture.  This  defendant 
admits  that  it  doth  not  come  within 
his  knowledge  that  any  machine  on 
similar  principles  was  used  in  Georgia 
or  elsewhere  for  the  ginning  of  cotton, 
but  he  hath  been  informed  and  doth 
verily  believe  that  a  machine  con- 
structed on  similar  principles,  though 
somewhat  different  in  its  formation 
had  been  known  and  in  use  in  Europe 
previous  to  the  time  of  the  said  Eli 
Whitney's  obtaining  his  patent,  al- 
though it  might  have  been  applied  to 
a  different  purpose  than  that  of  gin- 
ning cotton. 

This  defendant  also  admits  that  he 
did  not  know  of  any  other  mode  of  gin- 
ning cotton-cotton  used  in  Georgia  pre- 
vious to  the  time  of  obtaining  the  said 
patent,     other    than     thai    of      rollers. 


This  defendant  admits  that  he  ha.h 
since  the  17t,h  of  April,  1800,  and  a 
considerable  time  previous  thereto, 
used  a  machine  for  the  purpose  of  gin- 
ning cotton  consisting  of  circular  me- 
tallic plates  fastened  on  a  square  iron 
axis,  with  teeth,  cut  in  the  periphery 
of  the  plates,  and  a  brush  to  detach 
the  cotton  from  the  teeth,  but  he  de- 
nies that  the  same  is  in  form  similar 
to  that  of  the  Patentee,  according  to 
the  best  of  his  information,  having 
never  seen  one  of  the  machinespretend- 
ed  to  be  invented  by  Eli  Whitney,  but 
whether  there  Is  any  or  what  similarity 
in  principle,  he  cannot  say — because 
having  never  seen  the  machine  of  the 
Patentee  and  not  being  sufficiently 
skilled  in  mechanics  he  cannot  be  posi- 
tive. The  defendant  denies  that  he 
hath  been  requested  to  desist  to  use 
his  machine  otherwise  than  by  having 
been  sued  and  harassed  and  perplexed 
by  the  complainants  in  an  action  on 
the  common  law  side  of  this  honora- 
ble Court,  and  by  the  present  bill  of 
complaint  on  the  equity  side  thereof. 
This  defendant  denies  that  his  exam- 
ple has  induced  a  general  violation  of 
the  rights  of  the  patentees;  on  the 
contrary  he  is  inclined  to  believe  that 
if  any  infringement  has  been  made  on 
the  rights  of  the  patentees  that  it  has 
been  occasioned  by  the  avarice  of 
themselves  and  agents  or  some  of 
them.  This  defendant  hath  already 
answered  and  said  that  he  does  not 
believe  the  machine  for  which  the 
patent  was  obtained  is  a  useful  one, 
and  that  he  doth  believe  that  a  ma- 
chine constructed  on  similar  principles 
was  known  in  Europe  previous  to  the 
time  of  obtaining  the  said  patent.  And 
this  defendant  also  saith.  That  teeth 
cut  in  circular  metallic  plates  is  in  his 
opinion,  a  very  considerable  improve- 
ment. This  defendant  denies  that  he 
hath  used  his  machine  in  a  secret  or 
clandestine  manner,  but  that  on  the 
contrary  he  has  never  refused  any  per- 


APPENDIX. 


469 


sons  the  liberty  of  inspecting  or  exam- 
ining his  machines,  and  that  his  gin- 
hcu.se  at  all  times  at  which  his 
machine  was  at  work  hath  been  open 
for  the  admission  of  such  persons  as 
had  business  therein  or  chose  to  enter 
thereinto.  That  the  complainants 
might  have  well  had  their  action  if  to 
any  such  they  were  entitled  (Which  this 
defendant  doth  not  admit)  against 
him  at  common  law,  and  that  in  truth 
the  said  Eli  "Whitney,  and  the  said 
Phineas  Miller  in  his  life  time  insti- 
tuted a  suit  on  the  common  law  side 
of  this  honorable  court"  for  an  infringe- 
ment of  their  patent,  but  which  they 
failed  to  prosecute.  That  he  hath 
used  a  machine  for  cleaning  cotton 
constructed  as  he  hath  already  de- 
scribed for  seven  years  or  upwards, 
but  he  cannot  say  for  the  reasons  al- 
ready mentioned,  and  also  on  account 
of  not  seeing  the  Letters  Palent, 
whether  the  said  machine  used  by  him 
is  constructed  on  the  same  principles 
as  that  of  the  Patentees,  and  this  de- 
fendant continues  lo  use  the  same. 
This  defendant  is  unable  to  say  what 
quantity  of  cotton  he  hath  ginned  with 
his  machine,  as  he  did  not  keep  any 
account  thereof.  'That  his  machine 
consists  of  forty-six  circles  of  teeth, 
and  is  impelled  by  water.  And  this  de- 
fendant denies  all  and  all  manner  of 
confederacy  and  combination  where- 
with he  stands  charged  in  and  by  the 
said  bill  of  complaint,  without  that, 
that  there  is  any  other  matter  or 
thing  material  or  necessary  for  this 
defendant  to  make  answer  unto,  and 
not  herein  and  hereby  well  and  suf- 
ficiently answered  unto  confessed  or 
avoided,  traversed  or  denied,  is  true. 
All  of  which  matters  and  things  this 
defendant  is  ready  to  aver  and  prove 
as  this  honorable  court  shall  direct 
and  award,  and  humbly  prays  to  be 
hence  dismissed,  with  his  reasonable 
costs  in  this  behalf  most  wrongfully 
sustained. 

J.   HAMILL. 
1S0I.  for  Deft. 


Sixth   Circuit    Court,    District   of  Geor- 
gia. 

Arthur  Fort  being  duly  sworn 
maketh  oath  and  saith,  that  what  is 
contained  in  the  foregoing  answer  as 
far  as  concerns  his  own  act  and  deed 
is  true  of  his  own  knowledge,  and  that 
what  related  to  the  act  and  deed  of 
any  other  person  or  persons  he  be- 
lieves to  be  true. 

ARTHTJTl   FORT. 

Subscribed  by  the  above  named  Ar- 
thur Fort  in  my  presence  and  sworn 
to  before  me  this  17th  day  of  Decem- 
ber,  1805.  R.   M.   STITES,  Clerk. 

END  O  RlSElMENT. 
Sixth  Circuit  Court.  E.  Whitney 
and  Executors  of  Phineas  Miller  vs. 
A.  Fort  and  J.  Powell.  Answer  of  A. 
Fort,  Filed  19  th  Debembeir,  1805. 
Stites,    Clerk.     Hamill,  (Solicitor. 

POWEL'S  ANSWER. 
IN  THE  CIRCUIT  COURT  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES,  DISTRICT  OF 
GEORGIA. 
Eli  Whitney,  surviving  copartner  and 
executors  of  Phineas  /Miller,  com- 
plainants, vs.  John  Powell,  defendant. 
In  Equity. 

The  answer  of  John  Powell,  defend- 
ant in  the  above  case.  This  defendant 
Slaving  and  reserving  to  himself  all 
and  all  manner  of  exceptions  to  the 
manifold  errors  and  imperfections  in 
the  bill  of  complaint  of  said  complain- 
ants, for  answer  thereunto  or  unto  so 
much  thereof,  as  he  is  advised  is  ma- 
terial for  him  to  make  answer  unto, 
he  answereth  and  saith,  That  he  ad- 
mits that  a  patent  was  obtained  by  Eli 
Whitney,  one  of  the  complainants,  for 
the  invention  of  a  cotton  gin,  or  a  ma- 
chine for  cleansing  and  separating 
cotton  from  its  seeds,  at  the  time  and 
in  the  manner  set  forth  in  the  bill  of 
said  complainants,  and  he  admits  it  to 
be  true  that  he  hath  heard  and  be- 
lieves the  said  Eli  Whitney  did  after- 


470 


APPENDIX. 


wards  transfer  and  assign  to  Phineas 
Miller,  now  deceased,  a  moiety  of  the 
said  invention,  and  the  rights  at- 
tached thereunto,  under  the  patent 
aforesaid,  and  he  admits  it  also  to  be 
true  that,  said  Phineas  Miller  did  by 
his  last  will  and  testament  nominate 
and  appoint  Catharine  Miller  and  Lem- 
uel Kollock,  executors  thereof.  This, 
defendant  also  admits  it  to  be  true 
that  he  does  hold,  use  and  occupy  a 
machine  or  gin  for  cleaning  cotton, 
commonly  called  a  saw  gin;  that  the 
said  gin  has  a  wooden  frame,  and  a 
breast,  made  of  pieces  or  straps  of 
iron,  placed  at  such  a  distance  from 
each  other,  as  to  admit  the  teeth  of 
circular  metallic  rows  to  pass  through 
the  grooves  of  said  breast,  that  there 
is  a  revolving  cylender  on  Which  at 
regular  distances  from  each  other  are 
placed  circular  metallic  iron  plates, 
containing  teeth,  all  cut  and  inclined 
one  way;  these  teeth  pass  when  re- 
volving between  the  straps  or  pieces  of 
iron  affixed  to,  or  forming  the  breast, 
and  separate  the  cotton  placed  within 
the  hopper  from  its  seeds;  that  it  con- 
tains a  brush  made  of  the  bristles  of 
hogs,  affixed  to  a  cylender  revolving  in 
a  contrary  direction  to  the  one  con- 
taining the  circular  metallic  plates  or 
saw^  and  detaches  the  clean  cotton 
from  the  saws  or  teeth.  The  machine 
is  put  in  motion  by  a  whirl  fastened 
to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder  first  men- 
tioned, round  which  is  a  band  and 
propelled  by  horse.  This  defendant 
denies  all  unlawful  combination  with 
'which  he  stands  charged  without  that, 
there  is  any  other  matter  or  thing  ma- 
terial or  necessary  for  this  defendant 
to  make  answer  unto  and  not  herein 
and  hereby  well  and  sufficiently  an- 
swered unto,  confessed  or  avoided,  tra- 
versed or  denied  is  true.  IS.  JONES, 
(Solicitor    for   Defendant. 

Jefferson   County,   ss.  , 
John    Powell    of      Louisville,      practi- 


tioner of  physic,  being  duly  sworn 
maketh  oath  and  saith  that  the  facts 
set  forth  in  his  foregoing  answer  is 
true,  so  far  as  the  same  concerns  his 
o'wn  act  and  deed,  and  what  rests  on 
the  knowledge  of  others,  he  believes 
to   be  true.  JXO.   POWELL. 

Sworn    to   and    subscribed    before    me 
1st   May,   1805. 

M.    SHELMAN,   J.   J.   Ct. 

EXDORiS  E  MEIX  T. 
Eli  Whitney  and  Executors,  Miller  vs. 
A.  iFbrt  and  J.  Powell.  Answer  of  John 

Powe'll.  'Filed  6th  May,  1805.  Stites, 
Clerk. 

Arthur    Fort    vs.    Miller    and    Whitney, 
Case  9. 

And  the  said  Arthur  Fort  by  Robert 
Watkins,    his   attorney,    comes   and   de- 
fends the  wrong  and  injury,  when  &c, 
and  saith  that  he  is  ntot  guilty    of      he 
premises  above  charged  on  him  against 
'he  form  of  the  statute  aforesaid  as  the 
said    Phineas      and      Eli      have      above 
against  him  complained  and  of  this  he 
puts  himself  upon  the  country,   &c. 
WATKINS, 
Defendants'    Attorney. 
R.    M.  ISTTTEIS,    Clerk. 


ids.     Miller, 


:c.     Plea 


9.     A.      Fort 
filed. 

Circuit  Court,  Georgia. 

DECREE  FOR  INJUNCTION. 

E:i   Whitney,   et   al,   vs.     Arthur     Fort. 

Bill    for    injunction. 

This  cause  came  on  to  be  heard  this 
19th  day  of  December,  eighteen  hun- 
dred and  six,  before  the  Honorable 
Wm.  Johnson  and  the  Honorable  Wm. 
Stephens,  on  bill,  answer,  replication, 
testimony  and  exhibits,  in  behalf  of 
the   complainants. 

Whereupon  it  is  ordered,  adjudged 
and  decreed  that  the  injunction  prayed 
for  by  the  complainants  in  their  bill  be 
granted    them   and   that   the     same     be 


APPENDIX.  47I 

made   perpetual,   and   that    the   defend-  Document  VI, 

ant  pay  the  costs  of  this  bill. 

Dated  at  Louisville,   this  19th  day  of    CERTIFIED   COPY    OF    HODGEN 
December,   A.   D.,   1806,   and   in  the  31st  HOLMES'    PATENT    FOR 

year  of  American  Independence.  CAW   riv     ivnA 

WILLIAM    JOHNSON,    JR.  MW    U,N'   1790' 

WM.  STEPHENS.  This  paper  is  now  on  file  in  the  Uuited 

ENDORSEMENT.  States  Court  House,  Savannah,  da. 

Exemplification  of  the  Patent  of  Hod- 


Georgia  6th  Circuit  Court.  Whitney 
et  al,  vs.  Arthur  Fort.  Decree  for  Per 
petual  Injunction  19th  December,     1806.  £en  Holmes 

Ent.   page  13  and   14.     STTTES,     Clerk 


The  United  States  of  America. 


NOTE.  The  words  in  the  various  doc-    To  all  to  whom   these     Letters     Patent 


uments    which    are    repeated    at    inter- 
vals, thus-thus,  are  supposed  to  be  the 


shall  come: 


words  which  were  formerly  repeated  at       Whereas,   Hodgen  Holmes,   a     citizen 

the   bottom   of  the  page.     The   clerk  in 

making  'the  cei  wfied  copy    mu'st     have   '01  the  State  of  Georgia,  in  the    United 

copied  these  words  verbatim.  ^  ^  ^  States,  hath  alleged  that  he  has  in- 
vented a  new  and  useful  improvement, 
to-wit,  new  machinery  called  the  cot- 
ton gin,  which  improvement  has  not 
been  known,  or  used  before  his  appli- 
cation, has  made  oath  that  he  does 
verily  believe  that  he  is  the  true  in- 
ventor or  discoverer  of  the  said  im- 
provement, has  paid  into  the  Treasury 
of  the  United  States,  the  sum  of  thir- 
ty dollars,  delivered  a  receipt  for  the 
same,  and  presented  a  petition  to  the 
Secretary  of  State,  signifying  a  desire 
of  obtaining  an  exclusive  property  in 
the  said  improvement,  and  praying 
that  a  patent  may  be  granted  for  that 
purpose:  These  are  therefore  to  grant 
according  to  law,  to  the  said  Hodgen 
Holmes,  his  heirs,  administrators,  or 
assigns,  for  the  term  of  fourteen  years, 
from  the  nineteenth  day  of  the  month 
of  April  last  past,  the  full  and  exclu- 
sive right  and  liberty  of  making,  con- 
structing, using  and  vending  to  others 
to  be  used  the  said  improvement,  a  de- 
scription whereof  is  given  in  the  words 


472  APPENDIX. 

of  the  said  Hodgen  Holmes  himself  in  lowing  manner,  iviz:  The  whole  ma- 
the  schedule  hereto  annexed  and  is  chine  (standing  on  the  floor)  iis  made  of 
made  a  part  of  these  presents.  wood,  six  feet,  six  inches  wide,  Ave  feet 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  have  caused  long  and  five  feet  higtti,  by  putting  this 
these  letters  to  be  made  patent  and  machine  in  motion  for  use  of  the  before 
the  seal  of  the  United  States  to  be  mentioned  purpose,  is  to  be  done  by  the 
hereunto  affixed.  Given  under  my  hand    following  direction: 

at     the     city     of     Philadelphia,      this       The  cylender  frto'm  eight  to     fourteen 
twelfth  day  of  May  in  the  year  of  our   inches  in  diameter,  and  six    feet     long 
Lord,    one    thousand,      seven      hundred    with  one  row  of  teeth,     to     one     inch, 
and   ninety-six,   and   of   the   Independ-    which  runs  on  two  iron  gudgeons,   the 
ence  of  the  United  States  of  America    feeder  from  eight  to  twelve  inches   li- 
the  twentieth.  ameter,  with  two  rows  of  wires  of  one 
By  the  President,                          inch,  and  six  feet  long  and  runs  on  two 
GEORGE   WASHINGTON.       iron  gudgeons,  the  brush  from  seven  to 
TIMOTHY    PICKERING,  twelve  inches  in  diameter,  and  six  feet 
(I*   S.)                         Secretary  of  State.        long,  with  two  iron  gudgeons     to     each 
City  of  Philadelphia,  to-wit:  cylender,    from     three-quar&ers    of    an 

I   do   hereby  certify  that     the     fore-    inch  to  one  inch  thick, 
going  Letters  Patent  were  delivered  to  HODGEN  HOLMES, 

me,  on  the  twelfth  day  of  May,  in  the  Teste,  W.  Urquhart.  Seaborn  Jones, 
year  of  our  Lord,  one  thousand,  seven  Department  of  State,  to-wit: 
hundred  and  ninety-six,  to  be  exam-  T  hereby  certify  that  the  foregoing 
ined,  that  I  have  examined  the  same,  Letters  Patent  from  the  United  States 
and  find  them  comformable  to  law,  lo  iHodgen  Holmes  are  a  tnte  copy  of 
and  I  do  hereby  return  the  same  to  the  the  ,origiiml  on  record  in  tMa  Depart- 
Secretary  of  State   within  fifteen  days    ment 

from  the  date  aforesaid,  to-wit;  on  Qiven  under  my  ^ni  and  seal  of  jf_ 
this  tweltfh  day  of  May,  in  the  year  fice  fte  twenty.first  day  of  October, 
aforesaid.  CHARLES      LEE,  1797 

Attorney   General.        (SeaL)  TTMOTHY   PICKERING. 

The  schedule  leferred  to  in  these  Let-    

.    t,  NOTE.— This  document  gives  Holmes 

tens  Patent  and  making  part  of  the  a  residence  in  Georgia.  Augusta,  Ga., 
same  containing  a    description    in     the    was   the  actual   place  referred   to.       It 

appears  from  other  accounts  of  Holmes 
words  of  the  said  Hodgen  Holmes  him-    that  he  sometimes   lived  in  Hamburg, 

self  of  an     improvement,     to-wit:  new    LSt^^t^n^JS  X,™?^ 

county,     on  the    opposite    side    of    the 

machinery  called  the  cotton  gin.  Savannah    river    from    Augusta.     This 

explains  why  Holmes  is  frequently  re- 

F.XPLANATION     OF    THE     WHOLE  ferred   to   as    being   from    South    Caro- 

MACHINERY.  lina. 

.__,             ,  .            .           ,                       „.  His    legal    citizenship    was    probably 

This  machinery  for     cleaning    cotton  sometimes    in    Georgia   and   sometimes 

from  the  seed,  can  be  used  in  the  fol-  in  South  Carolina.                       D.  A.  T. 


APPENDIX. 


473 


Document  VII. 

LETTER  FROM  FHINEAS  MIDLER, 
OF  MULBERRY  GROVE,  GA.,  TO 
HIS  PARTNER,  ELI  WHITNEY, 
'NEW  HAVEN,  CONN.,  FEBRUARY 
15,  1797. 
This  is  copied  from  "Correspondence  of 
Eli  Whi'ney,  relative  to  the  Inven- 
tion of  the  Cotton  Gin." 
By  M.  B.  Hammond  in  The  American 
Historical   Review,    October,    1397. 

Mulberry  Grove,  Feb.  15th,  1797. 
DEAR  WHITNEY:  The  mystery  of 
your  silence  is  unravelled  and  I  am 
much  rejoiced— 'during  my  albsence  to 
the  upper  country  your  letters  of  17  and 
27  Nov.,  the  15th  and  20th  of  Dec.  and 
6th  Jan.  came  to  hand.  Not  one  of  these 
reached  here  until  the  latter  part  of 
January,  the  letters  by  Bontaeee  hiad 
carelessly  been  retained  by  the  person 
who  brought  ohem. 

Your  advice  respecting-  the  mistake 
most  probably  eoim>mitted  by  the  Rhode 
Island  Factory  is  agreeable.  My  anxi- 
eties on  this  .subject  are  kept  awake  by 
the  large  sum  we  have  at  stake.  You 
are  lalm'ost  surprised  that  my  con- 
fidence Should  'oe  .shaken;  the  people 
here  are  surprised  that  it  should  noi  be 
entirely  destroyed. 

I  think  your  advice  good  respecting 
keeping  a  supply  of  cotton  at  New 
Haven  and  New  York.  I  have  only  been 
prevented  from  pinching  necessities 
doing  this  heretofore,  and  shall  proceed 
a^>  much  as  my  funds  will  possibly  ad- 
mit this  winter.  I  have  indeed  en- 
deavored to  extend  my  credit  to  the 
purchase  of  40  or  50  m.  weight  of  cotton 
at  the  low  price  at  whiclh  it  lis  to  be  had 
at  present— viz:  $3.50,  and  for  cash  *3 
per  hundred.  I  have  ali'o  set  on  foot  in 
common  with  Mr.  Rupel  a  traffic  over 
the  mountains  to  the  distance  of  three 


hundred  miles  by  land,  which  I  think 
will  enable  us  lo  vend  a  few  thousand 
weight  of  cotton  very  profitably. 

(Fortunate  have  we  been  in  one  in- 
stance among  so  small  a  number  >f 
misfortunes  in  saving  our  cotton  and 
samples  of  cotton  at  New  York.  The 
repeated  disappointments  which  have 
yet  prevented  your  departure  for  Eng- 
land have  become  so  frequent  that  they 
almost  cease  to  create  surprise,  and  yet 
the  evil  arising  from  the  detention  is 
by  no  means  diminished.  I  really  think 
that  it  will  not  be  best  that  Nightin- 
gale should  engage  with  us  until  some 
Change  in  our  affairs  can  be  brought 
about.  We  require  at  present  his  as- 
sistance and  I  should  wish  to  make  him 
the  most  liberal  recompense  without 
subjecting  him  to  our  misfortunes,  in 
addition  to  his  own. 

It  will  be  best  to  take  the  deposi- 
tion of  Goodrich  and  Stebbins  on  lhe 
subject  of  raitchet  wheels  which  may 
hereafter  be  rendered  useful.  I  fear  it 
cannot  be  had  in  time  for  our  Court 
which  will  sit  the  last  of  April.  The 
name  of  the  Patentee  for  the  surrepti- 
tious patent  I  think  is  Robert  Holmes. 
The  names  of  our  defendants,  Kenne- 
dy and  Parker  and  Edward  Lyons.  I 
expected  you  would  have  procured  and 
sent  on  the  copy  of  the  patent  which 
was  to  be  Set  aside.  I  shall  now  write 
for  it  myself.  The  order  whiioh  was 
given  to  Adams  for  the  saw  mill  crank 
was  sufficiently  correct.  I  find  by  his 
letter  that  he  understood  it  exactly  as 
was  intended— but  the  difficulty  arose 
from  my  omitting  to  explain  the  mode 
of  our  applying  these  cranks  which  did 
not  appear  to  me  necessary.  It  is  now 
too  late  to  make  them— others  are  pro- 
cured. 

With  best  wishes  for  your  early  de- 
parture and  witih  the  regards  of  our 
family,  I  am  truly  your  friend, 

PHINS.   MILLER. 


474 


APPENDIX. 


Document  VIII. 

LETTER  FROM  EDT  WHITNEY, 
NEW  HAVEN,  CONN.,  TO  JOSIAH 
STEBBINS,  NEW  MTDFORD,  DIS- 
TRICT OF  MAINE,  OCT.,  15,  1803. 
This  is  copied  from  "Hammond's  Cor- 
respondence, above  cited. 

New  Haven,  15th  Oct.,  1803. 
DEAR  STEBBINS:  The  fates  have 
decreed  that  I  -shall  be  perpetually  on 
the  wing  and  wild  goOse  like,  spend  my 
summers  in  the  Norch  and  at  the  ap- 
proach of  winter  shape  my  course  Cor 
the  regions  of  the  South.  But  I  am  'an 
unfortunate  goose.  Instead  of  sub- 
limely touring  thro'  the  aerial  regions 
with  a  select  corps  of  faithful  compan- 
ions, I  must  solely  wade  thro'  the  mud 
and  dirt  a  solitary  traveller. 

While  on  my  tour  the  last  winter  I 
wrote  you  several  letters  to  several  of 
which  I  have  reed,  no  answer.  I  wrote 
you  a  letter  from  the  city  of  Washing- 
ton almost  a  year  since,  in  which  I 
gave  you  some  account  of  Thos.  Paine. 
I  feel  a  little  anxious  lest  this  letter 
may  have  miscarried.  T  wrote  you  a  ".so 
last  spring  from  'Savannah  (if  I  recol- 
lect rightly)  requesting  some  informa- 
tion relative  to  my  invention  of  the  cot- 
ton machine.  I  should  be  gratified  to 
krow  whether  you  reed,  these  letters  or 
not. 

I  shall  start  frc<m  here  in  ten  days 
for  South  Carolina  in  order  to  be  there 
at  the  meeting  of  the  legislature  of  that 
State  and  expect  to  return  in  January 
or  February.  A  multiplicity  of  avoca- 
tions has  prevented  my  writing  you  for 
some  time  past  and  it  has  ben  so  long 
delayed  that  I  fear  I  shall  not  be  able 
to  get  an  answer  from  you  before  I 
commence  my  journey. 

I  have  still  a  host  of  the  most  unprin- 
cipled scoundrels  to  combat  in  the 
Southern  .States.  I  have  not  nbw  leis- 
ure to  gO  into  detail  but  I  want  to  en- 


quire of  you  if  you  cannot  give  your 
deposition  to  the  following  import, 
(viz:) 

I,  Jos.  Stebbins,  &c,  &c,  do  tes- 
tify and  declare  that  I  have  been 
intimately  acquainted  with  Eli  Whit- 
ney, originally  of  Massachusetts, 
but  now  of  New  Haven  in  the  State  of 
Connecticut,  for  more  than  fourteen 
years.  That  the  said  Whitney  com- 
municated to  me  his  discovery  and  in- 
vention of  a  machine  for  cleaning  cot- 
ter from  its  seed  by  means  of  teeth 
passing  between  bars  or  ribs  of  a  part 
which  he  called  a  breastwork,  more 
than  six  months  before  he  obtained  a 
patent  for  said  invention.:?  That  I  saw 
sd.  Whitney  almost  every  day  thro'  the 
summer  and  autumn  of  the  year  1793, 
at  which  time  I  was  a  resident  gradu- 
ate in  Yale  College.  That  we  had  many 
and  frequent  conversations  on  the  sub- 
ject of  mechanics  and  natural  philoso- 
phy in  general  and  particularly  with 
reference  to  his  said  invention.  That  I 
transcribed  his  specifications  or  de- 
scription of  said  machine  several  times 
and  that  he  conferred  with  me  relative 
to  the  various  parts  of  said  descrip- 
tion. And  I  well  remember  that  said 
Whitney  repeatedly  told  me  that  lie 
orignally  contemplated  making  a  whole 
row  of  teeth  from  one  plate  or  piece  of 
metal  such  as  tin  plate  or  sheet  iron 
and  that  he  afterwards  had  recourse 
to  wires  to  make  the  teeth  from  neces- 
sity, not  having  it  in  his  power  at  that 
time  to  procure  either  tin  or  sheet  iron' 
ftn  Georgia.  That  in  the  first  draft  of  his 
specification  he  had  mentioned  sheet 
iron  as  a  material  out  of  which  the 
teeth  might  be  made  but  we  concluded 
it  was  wholly  unnecessary  as  it  did  in 
no  way  affect  the  principle  of  the  ma- 
chine being  only  one  of  a  great  variety 
or"  methods  in  which  the  tiee  h  might  be 
made  and  it  was  struck  out.  I  also 
recollect  that  the  said  Whitney  previ- 
ous to  writing  a  description  of  his  in- 
vention had  contemplated  a  variety  of 


APPENDIX. 


475 


methods  of  making  each  of  the  several 
parts  of  the  machine  but  it  was 
thought  to  be  wholly  immaterial  that 
they  should  be  mentioned  in  the  de- 
scription, etc.,  etc. 

I  hope  you  will  be  able  to  call  to  mind 
the  circumstances  mentioned  above,  not 
that  they  would  be  of  any  importance 
with  an  enlightened  upright  judge. 
The  circumstance  of  making  the  teeth 
of  sheet  iron  is  really  of  no  account  as 
it  regards  the  principle  and  my  night; 
but  as  that  is  the  method  in  which  the 
trespassers  make  the.machines,  they  lay 
gi'eat  stress  upon  it,  and  if  I  can  but 
prove  the  truth  about  it,  it  will  stop 
their  mouth  on  this  subject.  I  have  a 
stet  of  the  most  depraved  villains  10 
combat  and  I  might  almost  as  well 
go  to  hell  in  search  of  happiness  as  ap- 
ply to  a   Georgia  Court   tor  justice. 

T  fear  that  I  have  delayed  writiing  to 
you  so  long  that  I  cannot  get  an  an- 
swer from  you  before  I  leave  this, 
which  will  be  as  early  as  the  25th  of 
this  month.  But  I  would  thank  you  to 
lose  no  time  in  writing  to  me  and  direct 
to  me  at  Columbia  South  Carolina- 
whatever  your  recollection  will  enable 
you  to  testify  to,  relative  to  the  early 
history  of  my  invention.  I  wish  you 
to  forward  to  me  a  deposition  .signed 
and  sworn  to.  I  am  sensible  such  a  de- 
position will  not  be  reed,  in  a  court  of 
law,  there  being  no  commission  taken 
out  to  take  the  testimony  but  it  will  be 
very  useful  to  me  in  some  important 
arrangements  which  I  wish  to  make.  I 
hope  it  will  be  convenient  for  you  to 
write  me  soon  after  you  receive  this  as 
any  delay  will  dprive  me  of  any  benefit 
which  I  may  derive  from  your  deposi- 
tion. 

I  shall  not  make  any  considerable 
stop  before  I  reach  Columbia  in  So. 
Carolina,  which  place  I  do  not  now  ex- 
pect to  leave  before  the  20th  of  Decem- 
ber. Write  me  as  /much  and  often  as  you 
can.  I  shall  have  more  leasure  to  write 
you    while    traveling    than    I    have    had 


the  summer  past  and  you  may  expect 
to  hear  from  me  occasionally. 

My  armoury  here  has  got  to  be  a  reg- 
ular esta.blishmbent  and  progresses 
tolerably  well,  and  I  flatter  myself  I 
shall  make  something  handsome  by  the 
undertaking.  My  works  have  consid- 
erably excited  the  public  curiosity  and 
are  visited  by  most  people  who  travel 
thro'  this  country,  this  however  is  not 
so  flattering  to  my  vanity  that  I  do  not 
wish  to  be  less  thronged  with  specta- 
tors. It  would  really  giive  much  sincere 
pleasure  and  satisfaction  toseeyouhere 
and  shew  what  I  have  been  doing  for 
three  or  four  years  past.  Can  you  not 
visit  us  next  summer? 

With  best  and  most  affectionate  re- 
gards to  Laura  and  ardent  wishes  for 
your  (own)  happiness,  I  am,  have  been 
and  (shall  be) 

Your  sincere  friend, 

E.  WHITNEY. 

Josiah  Stebbins,  Esq. 

Document  IX. 

ABSTRACT  OF  LEGISLATIVE  REC- 
ORDS, ON  FILE  IN  STATE  HOUSE 
COLUMBIA,  S.  C,  RELATING  TO 
THE  PURCHASE  BY  THE  STATE 
OF  SOUTH  CAROLINA,  OF  THE 
PATENT  RIGHTS  TO  THE  WHIT- 
NEY GIN. 

In  the  Senate,  Dec.  1,  1801.  Major 
John  Turner  presented  a  petition  from 
"Sundry  Inhabitants  of  Richland 
County,"  praying  that  the  State  pur- 
chase for  the  free  use  of  i  s  citizens, 
the  patent  right  to  the  machine  known 
as  the  "saw  gin.' 

In  the  Senate  Dec.  7,  1801,  Dr.  Blythe 
of  All  Saints,  presented  a  petition  to 
the  same  efrec  from  "Sundry  Inhabi- 
tants of  Kershaw  County."  The  peti- 
tions were  referred  to  a  joint  commit- 
tee from  House  and  Senate,  composed 
on  the  part  of  the  Senate: 


476 


APPENDIX. 


Major  John  Turner  of  Richland  Coun- 
ty, Col.  Joseph  Calhoun  of  Aobeville 
County,  Capt.  Arthur  Simpkins  of 
Edgefield  County,  and  on  the  part  of 
the  House: 

iMr.  Taylor,  Mr.  Peter  Porch er,  Jr., 
Dr.  Hanscome,  General  Robt.  Ander- 
son, Mr.  John  Richardson. 

The  Senate  committee  reported  Dec 
12,  1801: 

That  they  have  met  a  committee  from 
the  House  of  Representatives  for  the 
•purpose  appointed  and  "they  have 
taken  into  their  joint  consideration  the 
matters  contained  in  said  memorials, 
and  have  had  full  conference  with  Mr. 
Eli  Whitney,  one  of  the  co-partners  of 
Miller  &  Whitney,  who  claim  the  said 
patent  for  the  exclusive  use  of  the  saw 
grin  Tor  cleaning-  the  staple  of  cotton 
from  the  seed  within  the  United  States. 
That  the  said  Eli  Whitney  for  himself 
and  the  concern  of  Miller  i&  Whitney 
has  proposed  as  the  lowest  sum  they 
will  be  willing-  to  take  for  the  patent 
right  within  the  limit  of  the  State  the 
sum  of  $50,000.  $20,000  to  be  paid  as 
soon  as  the  said  Miller  &  Whitney  shall 
make  a  legal  transfer  of  the  same  to 
the  State  or  its  agent.  $15,000  on  Sept. 
1st  and  $15,000  on  the  18th  day  of  Sept., 
which  will   be  in   the   year  1803." 

"That  taking  into  consideration  the 
immense  advantages  which  have  re- 
sulted, and  which  will  result  to  this 
State  from  this  most  ingenious  and 
useful  discovery,  as  well  as  the  sacri- 
fices which  the  inventor  has  made  in 
pursuing  and  perfecting  this  great  un- 
dertaking, as  well  also  as  the  certainly 
that  if  the  patentees  pursue  their  right 
against  individuals,  a  much  greater 
sum  would  be  likely  to  accrue  to  them, 
perhaps  tour  times  the  amount  at  pres- 
ent without  taking  into  view  the  cer- 
tain increase  which  will  toe  made  to  the 
number  of  machines  now  in  use — 
adding  also  to  these  considerations  the 
great  propriety  of  preventing  the     im- 


mense expense  of  litigation  to  our  cit- 
izens on  this  subject — and  that  it  is  be- 
coming and  dignified  in  the  State  to 
take  by  the  hand,  encourage  and  faster 
by  its  liberality  the  useful  arts. 

"They  therefore  resolved,  that  leave  be- 
given  to  bring  in  a  bill  for  the  purpose 
of  purchasing  from  Messrs.  Miller  & 
Whitney,  their  patent  right  to  she 
making,  using  and  vending  the  sav 
machine  within  the  limits  of  this  State 
and  for  compensating  them  for  ihe 
same. 

"They  further  recommend  that  a  tax 
should  be  laid  on  the  same  machines  now 

in  the  State  to  the  amount  of for 

every  saw  or  round  or  row  of  teeth  in 
the  said  machines  for  the  purpose  of 
defraying  the  second  installment  of  the- 
aforesaid  purchase  to  be  made;  and 
that  it  be  considered  that  the  tax  upon-. 
these  machines  be  pledged  for  the  pur- 
pose of  reimbursing  the  State  for  the- 
purchase  to  be  made  aforesaid." 

ORDERED 
that  the  report  be  considered  on  Mon- 
day next. 

On  Dec.  14,  1801,  the  Senate  agreed  to 
the  committee  report  and  returned 
same  to  committee  to  bring  in  a  bill  in 
conformity  thereto.  This  bill  waa- 
brought  in  and  passed  Dec.  16,  1801,  and> 
sent   to  the  House. 

The  bill  provided  that  Miller  & 
Whitney  should  make  a  legal  transfer- 
of  the  right  and  title  to  his  patent  for 
the  State  of  South  Carolina,  and  that 
they  should  refund  to  citizens  of  the 
State  all  sums  which  they  had  collect- 
ed therefrom  for  licenses,  and  that  they 
should  deliver  "within  a  reasonable 
time"  at  the  State  House,  twio  im- 
proved models  of  the  gin. 

On  making  the  legal  transfer,  Mr. 
Paul  Hamilton,  Comptroller  General  of 
the  State,  made  his  warrant  on  the 
treasury  for  the  cash  payment,  $20,000. 

General  Charles  Cotesworth  Pinkney, 
of  Charleston,   was  a  member  of     this- 


APPENDIX. 


477 


Senate.  He  was  one  of  Whitney's  early 
friends  in  the  South.  Another  member 
of  this  Senate  was  Mr.  Henry  Dana 
Ward,  from  Orangeburg  County.  He 
had  been  a  class-mate  of  Whiftney's  at 
Yale  College. 

In  the  Senate  Nov.  27,  1802,  Oapt.  Ar- 
thur Simpkins  of  Edgefield  County, 
presented  a  petition  from  William  Fos- 
ter, Taylor,  praying  that  the  Stiai'e  re- 
fund him  the  money,  $180,  which  he  had 
paid  Miller  &  Whitney  as  a  license  to 
operate  a  saw  gin.  This  petition  was 
referred  to  the  same  comimittee  that  re- 
ported on  the  purchase  at  the  preced- 
ing session,  with  instructions  to  confer 
with  the  Comptroller.  They  report 
Dec.  15,  1802,  that  the  Comptroller  had 
not  made  the  second  payment  on  the 
gin  patent,  and  that  he  held  the  money 
subject  to  the  action  of  the  legislature. 
The  petition  was  granted,  and  $180  re- 
funded Mr.  Taylor. 

The  regular  House  committee  ap- 
pointed tio  examine  the  Comptroller's 
annual  report,  say  in  their  report  Dec. 
13,  1802,  "on  the  subject  of  the  saw  gin 
that  Messrs.  Miller  &  Whitney  have 
not  complied  with  their  contract  relat- 
ing thereto,  they  highly  approve  the 
conduct  of  the  Comptroller  in  suspend- 
ing the  payment  'of  the  second  warrant' 
and  recommend  that  he  be  directed 
to  take  measures  to  compel  Messrs. 
Miller  &  W^hitney  to  reilund  the  money 
received  by  them  on  account  of  the  saw 
gin." 

On  the  same  date  the  Senate  com- 
mittee report: 

"Resolved,  that  the  legislature  ap- 
prove of  the  conduct  of  the  Comp- 
troller, that  he  be  also  directed  to  in- 
stitute such  suit  against  the  said  Miller 
&  Whitney,  as  may  be  necessary  to  try 
their  right  to  the  invention  of  the  ma- 
chine." The  members  of  this  commit- 
tee were  Capt.  John  Ward  of  Colleton 
County,  Major  Chas.  Goodwin,  of  Win- 
ston, and  Capt.  Sam  Warren  of  Santee. 


When  the  Cbmptroller's  annual  re- 
port came  to  the  House  again,  Dec.  1, 
1803,  it  mentioned  the  fact  that  the 
money  was  still  withheld  from  Miller  & 
Whitney,  and  that  suits  had  ben  insti- 
tuted against  them.  This  part  of  the 
report  was  referred  to  the  original  saw 
gin  committee.  They  did  not  report 
during  that  session. 

At  the  next  session,  Dec.  6.  1804,  Eli 
Whitney  presented  a  petition  tb  both 
House  and  Senate:  "Praying  that  the 
Slate  would  receive  two  models  of  the 
saw  gin  and  comply  with  their  contract 
in  the  purchase  of  the  petitioners'  pat- 
ent right  to  the  same."  IThis  was  re- 
ferred to  the  same  saw  gin  commit- 
tee. 

On  Dec.  15,  1804,  the  Senate  received 
the  report  of  the  joint  committee  as 
follows: 

"'On  the  'most  mature  deliberation 
they  are  of  opinion  that  Milder  &  Whit- 
ney, from  Whom  the  State  of  South 
Carolina  purchased  the  patent  right  for 
using  the  saw  gin  within  this  State 
have  used  reasonable  diligence  to  re- 
fund the  money  and  notes  iieceived  uy 
theni  from  divers  citizens  and  as  from 
several  unforeseen  occurrences  the  said 
Miller  &  Whitney  have  heretofore  been 
prevented  from  refunding  the  same. 
They  therefore,  recommend  that  the 
money  and  notes  aforesaid,  be  deposit- 
ed with  the  Comptroller  General,  to  ue 
paid  over  on  demand  to  the  several 
persons  from  wbolm  the  same  have  been 
received  upon  their  delivery  of  the  li- 
cense for  which  the  said  notes  of  hand 
were  given  and  said  monies  paid  to  the 
Comptroller  General,  that  he  be  direct- 
ed to  hold  the  said  licenses  subject  to 
the  order  of  the  said  Whitney;  that  the 
excellent  and  highly  improved  models 
now  offered  by  the  said  Whitney  be  re- 
ceived in  full  satisfaction  of  the  stip- 
ulations of  the  contract  between  the 
State  and  Miller  &  Whitney,  relative  to 
the  same;  and  that  the  suit  commenced 


478 


APPENDIX. 


by  the  State  against*  the  said  Mil- 
ler &  Whfcney  be  discontinued.  The 
joint  committee  taking  every  circum- 
stance alleged  in  the  memorial  into 
their  serious  consideration,  further  rec- 
ommend that  (as  the  good  faith  of  this 
Slate  is  pledged  for  the  payment  of  the 
purchase  of  said  patent  right)  the  con- 
tract be  now  fulfilled,  a-s  in  their  opin- 
ion it  ought  to.be,  according  tlo  the 
most  strict  justice  and  equity.  And 
although  from  the  documents  exhibited 
by  said  Whitney  to  the  committee,  they 
are  of  the  opinion  that  the  said  Whit- 
ney is  the  true  original  inventor  of  the 
saw  gin;  yet,  in  order  to  guard  the  cit- 
zens  from  any  injury  thereafter,  the 
committee  recommend  that  before  the 
remaining  balance  is  paid,  the  said 
Whitney  be  required  to  give  bond  and 
security  to  the  'Comptroller  General  to 
indemnify  each  and  every  citizen  of 
South  Carolina  against  the  legal  claims 
of  all  persons  whatsoever,  other  than 
the  said  Miller  &  Whitney  to  any  pat- 
ent or  exclusive  right  to  the  invention 
or  improvement  of  the  machine  for 
separating  cotton  from  its  seeds,  com- 
monly called  the  .saw  gin,  in  the  form 
and  uplon  the  principle  which  it  is  now 
and  has  heretofore  been  used  in  this 
State. 

On  the  vote  to  adopt  the  report  there 
was  a  tie  vote,  15  to  15.  The  President 
of  the  Senate  voted  with  the  regular 
members,  and  so  he  could  not  break  the 
tie.  The  report  was  therefore  not 
adopted. 

On  Dec.  18,  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives voted  to  discontinue  the  suits 
against  Miller  &  Whitney,  and  on  19th, 
iv  voted  to  adopt  the  committee's  re- 
port. This  was  reported  to  the  Sen- 
ate, and  they  took  another  vote  result- 
ing; in  favor  of  the  measure  by  14  to  11 

Mr.  Whitney  signed  an  indemnity 
bond  on  Dec.  27,  1804,  to  Thomas  Dee, 
then  Comptroller  General.  John  Tay- 
lor, J.  M.  Howell  and  Samuel  Green, 
of  Richland  County,  signed     the     bond 


with  him.  The  money  was  then  paid 
Mr.  Whitney  in  full  of  the  original 
contract. 

Document  X. 

EXTRACT  FROM  MESSAGE  RELAT- 
ING TO  THE  GIN  MONOPOLY  BY 
GOVERNOR  JAMES  JACKSON  TO 
LEGISLATURE  OF  GEORGIA, 
NOV.  3,  1800. 

*  *  * 
And  here  I  request  your  attention  to 
the  patent  gin  monopoly  under  the  law 
of  the  United  States,  entitled,  "An  act 
to  extend  the  privilege  of  obtaining 
patents  for  useful  discoveries  and  in- 
ventions to  certain  persons  therein 
mentioned  and  to  enlarge  and  define 
the  penalties  for  Violating  the  rights  of 
patents." 

The  operation  of  this  law  is  the  pre- 
vention and  cramping  of  genius  .as  it 
respects  cotton  machines,  a  manifest 
injury  to  the  community  and  in  many 
respects  a  cruel  extortion  on  the  gin 
holders.  The  two  important  States  of 
Georgia  and  South  Carolina  where  this 
article  appears  to  be  becoming  the 
principal  staple  are  made  trioutary  10 
two  parsons  who  have  obtained  the 
patents  and  who  demand,  as  I  am  in- 
formed $200.00  for  the  mere  liberty  of 
using  a  ginning  machine,  in  the  erec- 
tion of  which  the  patentees  do  not  ex- 
pend one  farthing  <and  which  sum,  as 
they  now  think  their  right  secured,  it  is 
in  their  power  in  future  licenses  to  raise 
to  treble  that  amount  from  the  infor- 
mation given  me  toy  a  respectable  mer- 
chant of  this  town,  (Louisville,  Ga.,) 
Whose  latter  on  that  subject  is  marked 
No.  6.  When  Miller  i&  Whitney,  the 
patentees,  first  distributed  the  machine 
of  their  construction,  they  reserved  the 
right  of  property  of  it  and  also  two- 
thirds  of  the  net  proceeds  of 
the.  gin,  the  expenses  of  Working  to  be 
joint  between  the  patentees  and  the 
ginners,    finding   however    a    defect     in 


APPENDIX. 


479 


the  law  under  which  their  Patent  was 
olbtained  they  determined  to  sell  the 
machines,  together  with  their  rights 
vested  in  them  for  $500.00  anid  for  a  li- 
cense to  authorize  a  person  to  build 
and  Work  one  at  his  own  expense, 
$400.00,  but  finding,  as  I  suppose,  that 
the  defect  of  the  law  was  generally  un- 
derstood and  that  they  could  get  no 
redress  in  the  courts,  they  Lowered  the 
demand  to  the  present  rate  of  $200.00— 
that  they  may  raise  it  to  the  former 
rates  is  certain,  and  that  they  will  do  it 
unless  public  interference  is  had,  there 
can  be  little  doulbt.  I  am  informed 
from  other  sources  that  gins  have  been 
erected  by  other  persons,  who  have  not 
taken  Miller  &  Whitney's  machine  for 
a  model,  but  which  in  ,slome  small  de- 
gree resemble  it,  and  in  improvements, 
far  surpass  it,  for  it  has  been  asserted 
that  Miller's  and  Whitney's  gin  did  not 
on  trial  answer  the  intended  purpose, 
the  rights  of  these  improvement  how- 
ever, it  appears  by  the  present  act, 
merged  in  the  rights  of  the  patentees, 
who  it  is  supposed  on  the  lowest  calcu- 
lation will  make  by  it  in  the  two  States 
$100,000.  Monopolies  are  odious  in  all 
countries,  but  more  particularly  so  in 
a  government  like  ours.  The  great 
law  meteor,  Coke.  declared  them 
contrary  to  the  common  and  fun- 
damental law  of  England,  their  tenden- 
cy certainly  to  raise  the  price  of  the  ar- 
ticle from  the  exclusive  privilege— to 
render  the  machine  or  article  worse 
from  the  prevention  of  competition  and 
improvement — and  to  impoverish  poor 
artificers  and  planters  who  are  forbid- 
den from  making,  vending  or  using  it 
without  license  from  the  patentees,  or 
in  case  of  doing  so,  are  made  liable  to 
penalties  in  a  court  of  law. 

The  Federal  Court  docket,  it  is  said 
is  filled  with  these  actions.  I  do  not 
doubt  the  power  of  Congress  to  grant 
these  exclusive  privileges  far  the  con- 
stitution  has  vested    them    with  it,   bat 


in  all  cases  where  they  become  injuri- 
ous to  the  community,  they  ought  1 1 
be  suppressed,  or  the  parties  be  paid  a 
moderate  compensation  for  the  discov- 
eries from  the  government  granting  tha 
patent.  The  eele'brated  Dr.  Adam 
Smith  observed  that  monopolies  are 
supposed  by  ciuel  and  oppressive  laws, 
such  as  is  the  operation  at  present  of 
the  law  on  the  subject — its  weight  lays 
on  the  poor  industrious  mechanic  and 
planter.  Congress,  however,  did  not  in- 
tend ilt  so,  for  when  the  first  law  on  th's 
head  was  passed  in  February,  1793,  a 
few  individuals  only  cultivated  cotton, 
and  it  was  not  dreamt  of  as  about  'o 
become  the  great  staple  of  the  two 
Southern  States,  a  staple  too,  which  if 
properly  encouraged  must  take  the  de- 
cided lead  of  any  other  (bread  kind 
excepted)  in  the  United  States. — the 
steps  proper  to  be  taken  to  remedy  this 
public  grievance  you  will  judge  Of— ibut 
I  .should  suppose  that  our  sister  Sta.e 
of  South  Carolina  w'ouHd  cheerfully 
join  Georgia  in  any  proper  application 
to  Congress  on  the  subject.  I  am  like- 
wise of  opinion  that  the  State  of  North 
Carolina  and  Tennessee  must  be  so  fir 
interested  as  to  support  such  applica- 
tion— if  you  think  with  me,  I  recom- 
mend communication  with  all  of   them. 


Document  XI. 

WHITNEY'S  REPLY     TO     GOVERN- 
OR JACKSON'S  IiETTER. 
Copied  from   "The  Columbian  Museum 
and   Savannah   Advertizer,"   Dec.     33, 
1800. 
Tj  Governor  Jackson: 

I  have  read  with  sensations  peculiar 
to  the  occasion  your  official  attack 
upon  our  private  property,  acquired 
under  the  patent  law  of  the  United 
States,  but  we  have  long  doub.ed 
whether  it  were  proper  to  communicate 
these  sensations  to  the  public. 


480 


APPENDIX. 


It  has  always  appeared  to  us  that  the 
private  pursuits  of  individual  indus- 
try are  entitled  to  the  most  sacred  and 
inviolable  protection  of  the  laws,  and 
that  a  good  cause  where  private  right 
alone  was  concerned  might  suffer  tri- 
vial injuries  without  acquiring  the  claim 
to  be  presented  oefore  the  solemn  trib- 
unal of  public  opinion.  But  When  the 
title  to  our  property  is  slandered  and 
political  persecuiion  openly  commenced 
against  us  under  pretence  of  official 
duty  by  our  chief  magistrate,  silence 
on  our  part  miight  be  supposed  tlo  sanc- 
tion the  abuse.  The  urgency  of  the 
case  must,  therefore,  Ibe  our  apology 
for  meeting  your  excellency  on  this 
ground,  and  in  making  a  defence  of  our 
property  fight,  we  shall  draw  a  veil 
over  the  passions  which  have  brought 
it  into  question,  and,  passing  over  the 
degraded  condition  to  which  the  State 
has  been  reduced,  shall  only  notice  the 
measure  in  which  we  aire  immediately 
implicated,  and  shall  consult  the  genius 
of  our  government  rather  than  the  acrs 
of  your  administration,  to  enable  us  to 
preserve  towards  you  that  respect  to 
which  your  office  is  entitled. 

In  the  first  place,  your  excellency  Will 
permit  us  to  remove  the  deception 
which  is  palmed  on  the  public  to  our 
disadvantage  in  the  approbrious  term 
"monoipoly."  'The  respectable  authors 
whose  names  were  brought  forward  to 
sanction  your  opinion  on  this  sub- 
ject speak  of  the  exclusive  right  to 
•carry  on  a  trade  or  manufacture  as  a 
"monopoly,"  and  not  of  the  protection 
which  government  chooses  to  give 
to  the  arts.  The  principle  of  the  pat- 
ent law,  your  excellency  will  please  o 
Orb-serve,  Consists  of  a  fair  compromise 
between  the  government  and  'the  au- 
thor of  the  invention.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  but  what  an  invention  in  .he 
arts  must  remain  the  exclusive  right 
of  the  inventor  under  the  most  oppres- 
sive laws,   while   the  secret  is  confined 


to  him,  and  many  instances  have  oc- 
curred off  the  preservation  of  the  secret 
for  years  and  even  of  its  final  loss  to 
the  public  to  the  death  of  its  inventor. 

To  remedy  which  evil  and  to  stimu- 
late ingenious  men  to  vie  with  each 
other,  governments,  by  enacting  patent 
laws,  substantially  agree  that  they  will 
afford  to  the  author  of  the  invention 
the  most  ample  protection  in  the  use  sf 
his  discovery  for  a  certain  term  of 
years  on  condition  that  after  that  pe- 
riod it  shall  (become  public  property. 
And  in  carrying  into  effect  of  all  such 
discoveries,  it  is  well-known  that  every 
inventor  must  incur  the  whole  expense 
and  take  on  himself  the  entire  risk  of 
the  success  of  his  invention,  in  which 
if  he  fails,  his  loss  Of  time  and  money 
does  not  always  constitute  his  great- 
est 'mortification,  and  if  he  succeeds, 
the  public  advantage  must  of  necessity 
go  hand  in  hand  with  his  acquirements, 
since  the  inventor  cannot  expect  his  in- 
vention to  be  employed  or  paid  for  un- 
less it  exceeds  all  others  in  point  of 
utility.  In  the  present  case,  we  be- 
lieve the  utility  of  our  invention  well 
known  and  candidly  admitted  Toy  all 
rational  men.  At  the  time  it  was 
brought  forward,  there  were  millions 
of  pounds  of  cotton  in  the  seed,  which 
awaited  the  event  of  some  improve- 
ment in  the  mode  of  iginning,  and 
wealth,  honor  and  gratitude  were 
promised  to  »he  fortunate  exertions  of 
genius  which  would  insure  the  culture 
of  green  seed  cotton  to  the  up-country. 

Under  such  flattering  auspices  and 
the  protection  of  the  law,  the  invention 
was  perfected,  and  at  great  expense  in 
money,  which  has  never  been  repaid, 
and  of  time  and  -labor,  which  is  unre- 
warded, and  now  your  excellency 
would  direct  your  influence  to  blast  the 
harvest  so  hardly  earned,  and  which 
for  many  years  has  waived  in  distant 
view  and  buoyed  up  our  hopes  under 
the  existence  of  adversity  and  oppres- 


APPENDIX. 


481 


.sion,  which  would  (have  (better  suited 
the  perpetrators  of  vice  than  the  in- 
dustrious and  successful  improvers  of 
so  useful  an  art. 

rrhe  idle  stories  which  your  excellency 
condescends  t'o  repeat  with  a  view  of 
dividing  with  soime  other  person  the 
credit  of  the  invention  are  nob  new  bo 
us,  butwealwaysconsidered  as  harmless 
while  they  only  served  to  amuse  Some 
ingenious  mechanic,  but  the  place  they 
hold  in  the  executive  message  requires 
us  to  observe  that  we  know  of  mo  pre- 
tentions of  this  kind  which  dan  stand 
the  smallest  examination,  and  we  chal- 
lenge the  most  distant  parts  of  Europe 
and  Asia  tlo  produce  a  model,  or  a  well 
attested  account  of  a  machine  for 
cleaning  cotton  upon  the  principle  of 
ours,  which  was  known  previous  to  our 
invention.  "We  have  notevenasoertained 
that  a  single  improvement  has  'oeen 
made  upon  the  machine,  of  which  we 
have  not  complete  evidence  of  our  pre- 
vious knowledge  and  experimental  use. 
But  whether  the  form  that  we  have 
aaopted  is  the  best  and  deserves  the 
preference  to  that  in  common  use  in  the 
up-country,  experience  (must  determine. 
At  present  public  opinion,  we  (acknowl- 
edge, in  this  respect,  to  be  against  us. 

We  have  too  good  an  opinion  of  the 
understanding  of  our  readers  tlo  believe 
that  they  can  be  amused  by  our  follow- 
ing your  excellency  through  the  detail 
of  our  private  concerns.  We  might  as 
vi  ell  claim  public  attention  to  our  mode 
of  planting  cotton  or  cleaning  rice.  Buc 
we  are  not  yet  blessed  with  the  vanity 
which  can  be  made  happy  by  tihe  belief 
tha;  our  words  and  actions  are  worthy 
of  scrutiny,  and  that  plain,  upright 
m'en  have  a  right  or  wish  to  know  the 
exact  proportion  in  which  we  divide  our 
Josses  or  emoluments   with   the  gentle- 


men who  thought  proper  to  be  interest- 
ed in  our  cotnceirn. 

The  alternative  which  your  excellen- 
cy suggests  of  paying  a  moderate  com- 
pensation to  the  patentees,  or  suppress- 
ing the  patent,  appears  bo  us  to  be  in- 
judiciously chosen,  fior  in  tihe  first  of 
these  cases,  if  the  bargain  is  to  be  all 
on  one  side  and  the  persons  who  would 
defraud  us  of  our  right  are  to  be  the 
sole  judges  of  the  compensation  to  be 
made  the  oppression  would  be  too  man- 
ifest; and  the  proposition  of  suppress- 
ing the  patent  is  so  bold  a  tihing  that 
we  forbear  giving  it  comment. 

Of  the  sum  of  money  which  we  are 
likely  to  make  on  our  Invention,  we  do 
not  pretend  to  judge,  but  sh'ouLd  be 
highly  gratified  if  the  prediction  of 
your  excellency  should  be  justified  by 
the  event;  should  it,  howeVer,  turn  out 
otherwise  and  should  this  public  in- 
stance of  persecution  and  slander  prove 
greatly  to  our  disadvantage,  we  per- 
suade ourselves  that  your  excellency 
has  too  high  an  opinion  of  the  equal 
nghts  of  men  to  be  unwilling  to  sub- 
mit to  a  court  of  justice  the  extent  of 
the  responsibility  that  you  have  taken 
on  yourself.  Appealing  as  we  do  to 
the  candor  and  liberality  of  our  fellow 
citizens  for  the  justice  of  our  cause  and 
for  the  consistency  of  Our  conduct,  we 
repeat  our  assurances  that  we  have  ap- 
peared 'before  them  with  regret,  and 
hope  that  it  may  be  the  last  tiime  that 
sc  much  of  your  excellency's  atten- 
tion will  be  devotleld  to  the  private  con- 
cerns of  your  constituents,  and  more 
particularly  of  those  who  are  so  desir- 
ous of  peaceably  pursuing  their  occu- 
pation, as  your  obendient  servants. 
Signed, 
MILLER  &  WHITNEY. 


Document  XII. 


LAWS 


OF 


NORTH  CAROLINA. 


At  a  General  assembly,  begun  and  held  at  IRaletQb,  on  the  fif- 
teenth Day  of  November,  in  the  Year  of  our  Lord  one  Thousand  Eight 
Hundred  and  two,  and  in  the  Twenty-seventh  Year  of  the  Independence 
of  the  said  State. 


JAMES    TURNER,   ESQUIRE,  GOVERNOR. 


CHAP.  I. 

An  Act  to  carry  into  effect  a  Contract  between  the  State  of  North  Carolina,  and  Phineas 

Miller  and  Eli  Whitney. 

WHEREAS  Eli  Whitney,  the  inven-  fhillings  and  fixpence  upon  every  faw, 
tor  and  patentee  of  a  machine  for  or  annular  row  of  teeth,  which  fuch  gin 
cleaning-  cotton  from'the  feeds,  common- 
ly called  a  Saw-Gin,  ha^  propofed  and 
offered,  in  behalf  of  himself  and  Phin- 


may  contain;  and  a  tax  of  two 
fhillings  and  fixpence  for  each  and 
every  faw,  or  annular  row  of  teeth, 
eas  Miller,  assignee,  of  one  moiety  of  which  fhall  be  ufed  in  faid  gins,  in  each 
the  patent-light  to  faid  machine,  to  fell    and  every  year,  for  the   term     of     five 


to  the  State  >f  North-Carolina,  :he  fole 
and  exclusive  right  of  making,  uiirig 
and   vending   the   faid   machine    within 


years  thereafter.  Provided,  that  the 
aforesaid  Miller  and  Whitney,  before 
they  fhall  receive,  or  be  entitled  to  re- 


the  limits  of  this  State:     And  whereas    ceive  any  of  the  money    collected     by 

virtue  of  this  act,  fhall  produce  their 
patent-right  aforesaid,  and  fatisfy  the 
Treafurer  that  they  are  the  true  pro- 
prietors of  the  fame;   which  tax,  when 


the  cultivation  of  cotton  is  inereafing 
in  this  State,  and  from  the  invention 
and  ufe  of  faid  machine,  likely  to  be- 
come a  valuable  ftaple  article  of  ex- 
portation, it  is  expedient  that  the  State    collected, to  be  paid  to  the  faid     Miller 


of  North  Carolina  do  purchafe  from  the 
faid  Miller  and  Whitney,     the    patenc- 


and   Whitney,   or  their  order,   firft   de- 
ducting the  Sheriff's  ufual  commirhons 


right  to  the  making,  ufing  and  vending    of  lix  per  cent,  for  collection,  from  year 


the  faid  new  invention  of  a  machine 
for  cleaning  cotton  from  its  feeds,  com- 
monly called  a  Saw-Gin,  on  the  terms 
and  conditions  hereinafter  mentioned; 
that  is  to  fay,  that  there  fhall  be  laid 
and  collected  by  the  State  of  North- 
Carolina,  on  each  and  every  faw-gin 
which  fhall  be  ufed  in  this  State,  be- 
tween the  pairing  of  this  act  and  the 
firft  day  of  April  next,  a    tax    of     two 


to  year  for  the  term  aforefaid:  The 
firft  payment  to  be  made  on  the  firft 
day  of  December,  in  the  year  of  our 
Lord  one  thoufand  eight  hundred  and 
three,  and  the  laf t  payment  on  the  firft 
day  of  November,  in  the  year  of  our 
Lord  one  thoufand  eight  hundred  and 
eight:  For  which  purpofe, 
Be  it  enacted  by  the  General  Affem- 


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DAIRYING  AND  BREEDING. 


From  Bulletin  No.  2+  Alabama  Experiment  Station. 


This  bulletin  is  not  intended  to  make 
every  land-owner  and  cotton-raiser  an 
exclusive  dairyman,  nor  is  it  presumed 
in  its  presentation  to  attempt  to  cover 
the  wide  and  important  field  of  dairy- 
ing. Its  object  is  to  mainly  throw 
out  a  few  suggestions  for  the  careful 
consideration  of  the  farmers  of  the 
State,  as  well  as  to  give  some  practical 
thoughts  and  demonstration  of  facts 
from  our  experience  as  a  breeder  of 
Jersey  cattle.  It  is  exceedingly  unfor- 
tunate that  the  masses  of  our  farmers 
are  so  ill-informed  on  this  matter. 
But  few  of  them  read  a  dairy  or  stock 
paper  of  any  sort,  hence  have  no 
knowledge  of  many  important  facts 
with  reference  to  stock  breeding  and 
its  management.  It  is  with  the  hope 
of  instructing  this  class  of  farmers 
that  we  propose  to  send  out  this  bul- 
letin. 

Let  me  beg  you  not  to  conclude,  be- 
cause you  do  not  own  a  fine  herd  of 
Jersey  or  other  pure  bred  cattle,  that 
this  is  of  no  interest  to  you.  If  you 
own  only  one  cow  it  will  pay  you  to 
inform  yourself  as  how  best  to  manage 
and  feed  her,  and  if  together  with  se- 
curing this  information  you  will  pro- 
cure, at  reasonable  cost,  recently  im- 
proved appliances  for  butter  making, 
your  wife,  who  generally  has  the  bulk 
of  the  work  to  do  in  this  department, 
will  rise  up  and  call  you  blessed.  So 
then  subscribe  at  once  for  some  good 
stock  and  dairy  paper  and  learn  from 
the  practical  experience  of  others  how 
to  feed  and  manage  your  cows,  and 
the  best  process  of  making  butter 
with  the  least  cost  and  labor. 

The    great    majority     of     farmers    of 


Alabama  own  from  six  to  eight  milch 
cows,  others  own  many  more,  and  a 
few  none.  It  is  frequently  the  case 
that  a  man  milking  five  cows  does  not 
make  a  pound  of  butter  for  sale.  The 
first  trouble  is,  most  cotton  producers 
own  too  many  cattle.  Sell  off  all  your 
non-paying  and  worthless  cows,  and 
re-invest  this  money  in  more  feed  (if 
you  have  not  already  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity on  hand),  a  good  comfortable 
stable  for  the  cow,  and  a  few,  at  least, 
of  the  many  important  dairy  imple- 
ments. An  important  step  for  the 
farmer  who  decides  to  improve  his  cat- 
tle is  the  purchase  of  a  bull. 

Grading  up  your  herd  in  the  right 
way  is  of  the  first  importance;  and 
do  not  cherish  for  one  moment  the 
thought  that  you  own  in  one  of  your 
native  cows  one  that  is  superior  to  all 
others  for  milk,  butter  and  beef,  "a 
general  purpose  cow,"  'and  propose  to 
raise  and  use  in  your  herd  a  bull  calf 
from  her.  You  do  not  own  such  a 
cow,  nor  ever  will. 

If  you  want  butter,  buy  a  Jersey  or 
Guernsey;  if  milk,  Holstein  or  Ayr- 
shin?;  beef,  Shorthorn  or  Hereford. 
There  are  other  breeds  worthy  of  note. 
These  are  used  by  way  of  illustration, 
as  they  have  been  bred  for  a  specific 
purpose  for  a  long  time;  and  the  buyer 
when  he  gets  a  representative  animal 
of  either  breed,  knows  what  he  is  get- 
ting before  he  pays  his  money.  Once 
in  awhile  there  will  appear  a  phenom- 
enal butter  cow  of  the  milk  and  beef 
breeds,  or  a  phenomenal  milker  of  the 
butter  breeds.  Pay  no  attention  to 
this,  it  is  the  breed  you  are  after, 
backed     by     indisputable     performance 


APPENDIX. 


48; 


both  at  the  pail  and  at  the  churn. 

There  are  plenty  of  reliable  breeders 
of  the  different  breeds  that  will  sell 
you  a  bull  at  a  reasonable  figure.  Fifty 
dollars  will  buy  a  very  good  bull,  oni 
hundred  dollars  a  much  better  one.  It 
may  be  that  you  cannot  afford  this 
outlay,  as  you  have  but  few  cows;  in 
this  case  your  neighbors  can  join  you. 
Co-operate;  use  your  order,  the  Alli- 
ance. First,  decide  on  the  breed; 
next,  buy  as  near  home  as  you  can, 
thus  avoiding  acclimating  fever.  If 
you  cannot  find  what  you  want  in  your 
own  State,  then  go  out  of  it.  Get  th^ 
best.  The  bull  is  half  the  herd,  and 
under  no  circumstances  use  a  grade. 

Get  your  natives  in  good  condition 
and  test  each  cow  by  the  churn.  The 
cow  giving  the  largest  flow  of  milk 
does  not  always  make  the  most  but- 
ter. Quite  often  the  very  reverse  is 
true.  Continue  along  to  weed  out. 
keeping  the  best  until  you  breed  a 
model  dairy  cow. 

What  is  a  model  dairy  cow?  One  of 
medium  size,  small  head,  full  and 
placid  eyes,  neck  long,  thin  and  clean, 
broad  hips  and  back  of  great  breadth 
at  the  loins,  large,  roomy  stomach, 
short  legs,  large  udder,  medium  sized 
well  placed  teats,  tortuous  milk  veins. 
The  escutcheons,  like  the  solid  color,  is 
thought  to  be  desirable  by  some,  but 
many  good  dairy  cows  have  first- class 
escutcheons  and  others  equally  as  good 
have  very  poor  ones. 

The  cow  when  well  fed  should,  of 
course,  give  a  large  quantity  of  good 
rich  milk. 

Do  not  be  a  "stickler"  on  color  or 
size,  or  decide  to  let  a  cow  remain  In 
your  herd  because  she  has  a  good  es- 
cutcheon and  pretty  horns.  If  she  only 
weighs  600  pounds,  is  as  black  as  a 
crow,  and  has  neither  escutcheon  or 
horns,  but  yields  the  butter,  keep  her. 
You  want  the  cow  that  will  produce 
the  most  butter  at  the  least  cost. 

Dewaie  of  in-and-in  bresdin?;  p  rhaps 


you  have  already  paid  dearly  for  it. 
With  perfect  animals  on  both  sides  and 
in  the  hands  of  a  skillful  breeder  it 
may  do,  but  as  now  practiced,  it  is 
ruinous,  and  why  should  you  in-breed 
so  much?  There  is  no  necessity  for  it. 
Breed  to  the  winner,  and  it  is  not  out 
of  place  to  say  that  this  Experiment 
Station  has  been  pi-acticing  in-and-in 
breeding  for  a  number  of  years  with 
a  small  herd  of  Jersey  cattle,  the  511 
effects  of  which  can  be  seen  by  any 
practical  breeder.  The  old  cows  are 
still  the  best,  and  one  of  the  last  heif- 
ers that  come  in  milk  young  and  which 
is  intensely  in-bred,  had  no  fore  udder 
at  all.  The  foundation  stock  is  ie- 
ficient  here.  The  experiment  has 
proven  conclusively,  both  in  form  and 
at  the  churn,  that  unless  you  have 
perfect  animals  on  both  sides  to  start 
with,  and  you  are  skilled,  it  is  best  not 
to  undertake  it. 

If  you  have  no  barn,  and  no  means 
to  build  one,  make  a  shed,  plank  up 
the  north  and  west  sides,  have  separ- 
ate stalls  or  fastenings  for  each  cow, 
either  stanchion  or  halter,  and  do  not 
allow  them  to  run  all  over  your  cow 
pen,  as  practiced  by  most  farmers. 
Take  your  calves  away  from  the  cows 
at  four  to  six  weeks  old.  Feed  your 
cows  well.  The  most  costly  thing  on 
a  dairy  farm  is  a  poor  cow.  Milk  and 
feed  regularly,  make  them  comfortable 
(this  word  implies  a  great  deal),  and 
with  kind  treatment,  they  are  certain 
to   respond. 

Feed-tables  are  sometimes  given  to 
show  you  how  much  feed  to  use.  Re- 
member that  it  requires  more  than  a 
maintenance  ration,  and  that  you  can- 
not get  good  results  from  raw  cotton 
seed  and   shucks,   for  instance. 

Many  farmers  have  asked,  "how  To 
you  raise  your  calves?"  We  practice 
here  the  following  plan:  The  first  milk 
from  the  cow's  udder  acts  as  a  physic, 
and  the  calf  should  be  allowed  to  take 
it.     When    the    calf    is    four    days    old, 


488 


APPENDIX. 


separate  it  from  its  mother;  after  12 
hours  of  fasting,  take  a  couple  of 
quarts  of  its  mother's  milk,  warm 
from  the  cow,  dip  the  fore  and  middle 
fingers  into  the  milk  and  insert  into 
the  calf's  mouth.  If  it  is  very  unruly 
back  into  corner  of  the  stable  and  get 
straddle  of  the  calf's  neck.  Repeat  this 
until  the  calf  sucks  the  fingers.  Do 
not  lose  your  patience.  It  is  certain  to 
throw  up  its  head.  Lower  it  until  the 
mouth  comes  in  contact  with  the  milk 
in  the  pail,  and  when  it  begins  to 
drink  the  milk,  gradually  withdraw 
the  fingers  from  the  mouth.  The  calf 
will  continue  to  throw  up  its  head 
many  times,  but  with  patience,  repeat 
the  process  until  tne  calf  continues  to 
drink  the  milk  after  the  fingers  are 
withdrawn.  It  will  generally  do  this  at 
the  third  or  fourth  trial.  Two  quarts 
of  milk  three  or  four  times  a  day  is  all 
that  it  will  take  for  the  first  three 
weeks.  At  the  end  of  this  time,  add  a 
gill  of  sweet  skimmed  milk,  heated  to 
blood  heat  (98  degrees)  to  each  feed, 
twice  per  day,  and  12  hours  apart  until 
the  quantity  is  increased  to  three 
quarts.  Continue  this  for  ten  days, 
then  decrease  the  new  milk  one  gill  at 
feed  until  no  new  milk  is  given;  at 
the  same  time  increase  the  warm  skim- 
med milk  half  a  pint  at  a  feed  until  it 
reaches  a  gallon.  Skim  the  milk  after 
it  sets  12  hours,  and  always  feed  it 
blood  warm  and  while  i-  is  perfectly 
sweet.  The  great  object  in  thus  chang- 
ing so  gradually  from  new  to  skimmed 
milk,  is  to  avoid  the  "scours."  Bright 
hay  or  fodder  snould  always  be  acces- 
sible after  a  few  weeks  old.  Corn  and 
oats  mixed  may  be  put  in  the  feed 
trough;  the  calf  will  soon  learn  to  eat 
„and  chew  its  cud.  Keep  the  calves  in 
a  dry,  clean  stable  with  plenty  of  pure 
water  and  salt  when  a  few  months  old. 
At  seven  months,  take  the  milk  entirely 
away,  and  continue  to  feed  and  let 
them  run  on  in  good  pastures.  Breed 
at  18  months  old.    We  use  linseed  meal 


here  with  the  milk  to  raise  our  calves. 

At  present  the  cows  at  this  station 
are  fed  at  5:30  a.  m.,  and  4:30  p.  m. 
The  first  thing  in  the  morning  is  to- 
clean  and  sweep  the  stables.  The  cows 
are  then  fed  and  groomed,  udders 
brushed  carefully,  and  with  a  clean 
rag  and  bucket  of  tepid  water,  washed 
and  wiped  dry  with  a  clean  towel.  The 
milker  is  now  ready  for  business,  and 
with  clean  hands  and  short  finger 
nails,  he  goes  at  his  job  with  both. 
hands  quickly  and  quietly.  The  milk 
is  weighed  from  each  cow  and  a  record 
is  kept.  It  is  then  strained  through 
a  wire  cloth  strainer  into  a  ten-gallon 
can  and  carted  to  the  dairy.  The  de- 
tails of  our  method  have  been  given  in, 
order  to  show  that  good  butter-making 
must  begin  at  the  barn. 

When  no  experiments  are  being  car- 
ried on,  we  feed  an  ensilage,  and  one- 
third  each  of  corn  meal,  ground  oats 
and  bran,  giving  what  the  cows  will 
eat  clean. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  many  farm- 
ers that  we  give  a  short,  plain  and  sim- 
ple way  how  we  make  butter.  We  have- 
the  facilities  for  making  good  butter, 
viz:  a  good  dairy  hand-power  sepa- 
rator, cooling  creamer,  ripening  vat, 
butter  worker,  print,  etc.,  besides  an 
automatic  fermenting  can  and  auto- 
matic ripening  vat,  and  a  good  well  of 
pure  water,   though   not  cold. 

After  the  milk  is  carried  to  the  dairy 
it  is  run  through  a  hand-power  sepa- 
rator. The  cream  is  at  once  cooled 
down  to  55  degrees,  placed  in  a 
creamer,  and  kept  sweet  until  enough 
cream  is  gathered  for  churning.  It  is 
then  poured  into  a  cream  vat  to  ripen, 
kept  at  a  temperature  of  70  degrees, 
and  well  stirred  during  the  ripening 
period.  As  soon  as  it  is  slightly  acid,  it 
is  ready  for  churning.  Cool  down  to 
62  degrees,  scald  out  the  churn  well, 
and  pour  in  the  cream.  When  the 
granules  of  butter  are  the  size  of  wheat 
grains,  the  churn  is  stopped  and  rinsed 


APPENDIX. 


489 


down  with  a  gallon  of  cold  water  (5(3 
degrees).  A  few  swings  of  the  churn, 
and  the  butter-milk  is  ready  to  V.e 
drawn  off.  Wash  the  butter  with  about 
the  same  quantity  of  cold  water  as  you 
have  butter-milk;  in  two  washings  the 
water  is  clear.  Tilt  the  churn  to  one 
side  and  let  the  butter  drain  thorough- 
ly. It  is  then  taken  up  and  placed  on  a 
butter  tray,  weighed  and  salted,  one 
ounce  to  the  pound.  Put  on  the 
worker,  and  work  only  enough  to  dis- 
tribute the  salt.  Print  into  one-pound 
prints,  wrap  with  parafflne  paper,  and 
forward  to  the  consumer.  When  mak- 
ing butter  in  this  way,  we  stir  the 
cream.  Never  mix  sweet  and  sour 
cream.    Ice  is  necessary  in  summer. 

What  to  do  with  the  milk  is  an  im- 
portant question,  and  one  you  must 
decide  for  yourself.  There  is  more 
money  lost  by  the  farmers  of  Alabama 
between  the  milk  pail  and  the  churn, 
through  ignorance  and  carelessness 
than  they  are  aware  of.  You  fail  to 
get  money  out  of  your  cows  by  im- 
proper feeding  and  handling,  then  after 
you  get  the  milk,  a  large  per  cent,  is 
lost  by  manipulation,  by  having  only- 
few,  if  any,  of  the  improved  dairy  im- 
plements and  no  dairy  proper.  This  is 
to  be  expected.  Stop  and  reflect 
whether  you  can  afford  to  do  this  any 
longer;  you  say  that  a  dairy  is  costly, 
and  it  generally  is,  but  this  is  not  the 
kind  that  the  cotton  raisers  need.  Buy 
the  right  sort  of  dairy  goods,  and  a 
cheap  structure  will  answer  your  pur- 
poses. Is  not  your  milk  carried  now 
from  the  "cow-pen"  to  the  house  cold, 
and  the  cream  on  top  strained  into  jars 
and  set  away  to  turn.  As  the  weather 
continues  cold,  are  not  the  jars  trans- 
ferred from  your  faulty  cellar  or  shed 
room  to  the  family  room  or  kitchen, 
there  to  remain  two,  three,  and  some- 
times four  days?  Your  wife  turns  the 
jars  to  the  fire  often  during  the  day, 
and  the  milk  will  not  turn,  and  all  the 
while   it   is    getting   spoiled.    She    gets 


disgusted  and  attempts  to  churn  it, 
and  with  a  dash  churn  begins.  Gener- 
ally she  knows  what  to  expect.  Not 
having  a  thermometer,  the  boiling 
water  is  poured  in,  and  something  that 
you  call  butter  is  taken  out.  The  fer- 
menting can  and  cream  ripening  vat 
will  do  away  with  this,  and  if  you  will 
visit  this  station,  as  you  should,  we  will 
convince  you  on  this  point.  A  little 
money  expended  for  dairy  goods  will 
furnish  you  the  means  for  making  a 
good  article  of  butter  and  will  be  a 
great  relief  to  your  over-worked  wife. 

The  actual  cost  of  feeding  will  vary 
in  different  portions  of  the  State. 
Each  farmer  knows  what  he  can  grow 
in  the  section  in  which  he  lives.  Bar- 
ley, rye,  corn,  millet,  sorghum,  peas, 
cotton  seed  and  in  many  sections  of 
our  State,  the  clovers  and  grasses 
grow  to  perfection.  Those  farmers 
who  intend  to  increase  the  number  of 
dairy  cattle  to  20  or  25  milch  cows 
should  by  all  means  build  a  silo. 
Corn  pea-vine  ensilage  is  the  most  nu- 
tritous  and  cheapest  feed  we  have. 
Try  it. 

The  attention  of  farmers  is  called  to 
the  following  maxims,  derived  from  my 
own  experience  and  that  of  other  prac- 
tical dairymen 

Feed  your  cows  twice  per  day,  at 
regular  intervals,  and  have  pure  water 
and  salt  always  accessible. 

You  do  not  need  a  dog  to  drive  up 
dairy  cattle. 

A  dairy  cow  does  not  need  as  much 
exercise  as  a  trotting  horse. 

A  cow  with  good  escutcheon  and 
nothing  else  should  be  butchered. 

A  yellow  skin  we  like  to  see,  but  it 
is  not  always  a  true  index  to  the  color 
of  the  butter.  The  butter  from  a  pale- 
skin  cow  is  often  yellow. 

Your  "scrub"  cows  are  averaging 
you  not  more  than  100  to  125  pounds 
of  butter  per  year.  You  should  try  to 
double  this  yield. 

The   cow    likes    a    variety     of     food; 


490 


APPENDIX. 


gratify  her  taste  as  often  as  you  can. 

The  winter  dairy  pays  best,  therefore 
breed  the  most  of  your  cows  in  Decem- 
ber and  January,  and  they  will  be  fresh 
in  September  and  October  following-. 

Decide  on  the  breed  and  stick  to  jt. 

There  are  many  worthless  cows  in 
every  breed. 

The  cow  is  a  machine  for  the  manu- 
facture  of   milk   and    butter,    and    the 
stomach  is  the  bast  laboratory   in 
world  for  this  purpose. 

There  are  many  ways  to  test  the  ri  h- 
ness  of  a  cow's  milk  besides  the  churn; 
and  every  dairyman  should  have  a 
tester.  The  farmer  can  use  the  churn 
if  he  prefers  to  do  so. 

In  ordering-  your  dairy  goods,  the 
first  thing  to  put  on  your  list  is  a 
thermometer.  It  is  more  reliable  than 
your  wife's  forefinger. 

One  ounce  of  salt  to  the  pound  of  but- 
ter is  our  rule,  but  always  try  to  salt 
to  please  your  customers. 

It  is  much  better  to  wash  the  milk 
out  of  the  butter  while  in  the  churn 
than  to  work  it  out  on  the  worker. 

It  is  impossible  for  you  to  be  too 
clean,   either  at  the  barn  or  dairy. 

Keep  your  milk  out  of  the  kitchen; 
it  absorbs  all  the  bad  odors  and  your 
customers  will  complain  of  the  flavor. 

Set  aside  your  old  dash  churn,  and 
buy  a  barrel,  swing  or  box  churn. 

Churn  your  cream  when  slightly 
acid,  and  do  not  put  it  off  to  suit  your 
convenience.  Here  is  where  you  lose 
money. 

Churning  temperature,  62  degrees  in 
summer;  64  degrees  in  winter.  If  you 
feed  much  cotton  seed  in  winter  you 
can  get  68  or  70  degrees  and  it  will  do 
no  harm.    The  lower  the  better. 

You  cannot  make  a  first-class  article 
of  butter  by  feeding  cotton  seed  alone. 
They  spoil  the  flavor. 

Cotton  seed  meal,  or  well  steamed 
cotton  seeds,  fed  in  limited  quantities 
in  connection  with  other  feed,  will  do 
no  harm. 


The  farmers  of  Alabama  can  have  a 
succession  of  green  crops  almost  from 
one  end  of  the  year  to  the  other.  Add 
to  this,  cotton  seed  meal,  raw  cotton 
seed,  and  hulls,  with  good  ensilage, 
they  can  make  butter  very  cheap. 

Raw  cotton  seed  is  like  the  sweet  po- 
tato, it  can  be  served  in  many  ways. 
Place  a  high  value  on  it  and  learn  to 
feed  it  the  right  way,  but  never  to  ex- 
cess. 

When  the  patent  butter  maker  comes 
around,  do  not  let  his  persuasive 
tongue  induce  you  to  buy  a  county 
right  to  manufacture  his  butter.  He 
is   a   fraud;    let   him  alone. 

Milk  your  cows  ten  months  in  the 
year. 

Rich  food  will  decrease  the  quantity 
of  milk,  but  will  increase  the  amount 
of  butter. 

The  dairy  business  is  a  renovator,  a 
restorer  of  worn  out  hands,  and  an  edu- 
cator of  those  who  engage  in  it. 


THE  THEORY  OF  CATTLE  FEEDING 

The  chapters  on  fertilizers  have 
shown  in  detail  the  theory  of  fertiliz- 
ing, or  the  feeding  of  lands.  The  chap- 
ter on  cattle  feeding  has  confined  itself 
mostly  to  the  practical  facts,  without 
elaborating  the  theory.  A  brief  con- 
sideration of  the  theoretical  aspects  of 
the  question  is  here  submitted.       > 

There  is  a  considerable  similarity  be- 
tween feeding  lands  and  feeding  cattle. 
In  both  cases,  the  purposes  to  be  ac- 
complished (by  the  land  or  the  cattle), 
must  determine  the  amount  and  char- 
acter of  the  feeding.  Certain  propor- 
tions of  the  fertilizing  chemicals  ar3 
best  suited  for  certain  crops,  and  cer- 
tain proportions  of  feeding  chemicals 
are  best  suited  for  fattening  stock; 
other  proportions  for  milk  production, 
and  still  others  for  work  animals. 

The  recognized  elements  in  feeding 
stuffs   are   principally    (1)    protein,    (2) 


APPENDIX. 


49I 


carbohydrates,  (3)  fat.  Other  elements 
are  water  and  ash. 

Protein  contains  about  16  per  cent, 
nitrogen,  and  the  nitrogen  is  the  im- 
portant part  from  the  standpoint  of 
cost.  This  substance  is  consumed  in 
the  production  of  blood,  muscle,  milk, 
wool,   hair,  etc. 

Carbohydrates  and  fat  are  fuels, 
which  are  consumed  by  the  animal 
mechanism,  primarily  to  produce 
warmth  and  power,  and  incidentally  to 
store  up  surplus  fat.  The  term  "car- 
bohydrates," as  here  used,  includes  the 
two  items  discussed  in  some  works  as 
"nitrogen — free  extract,"  and  "crude 
fibre."  Both  of  these  consist  of  car- 
bon and  hydrogen,  and  hence,  for  pur- 
poses of  discussion  as  feed  constituents, 
they  are  properly  classed  as  carbohy- 
drates. 

The  small  amount  of  ash  required  in 
a  feed  is  present  in  small  quantities  in 
all  feeding  stuffs.  It  is  also  supplied  in 
salt.  Its  use  in  the  animal  economy  is 
mostly  for  the  building  of  bone. 

Different  feeding  stuffs  contain  thsse 
three  different  essentials  in  varying 
amounts,  and  in  varying  degrees  of 
availability  or  digestibility. 

In  tabulating  the  proportions  of  in- 
gredients, only  the  digestible  portion  is 


considered.  But  in  practice  it  is  neces- 
sary always  to  have  sufficient  bulk,  or 
in  other  words,  the  nutritive  elements 
must  be  sufficiently  dilute.  For  some 
reason,  the  process  of  assimilation  goes 
on  better  when  the  animal's  stomach  is 
sufficiently  distended.  On  this  account, 
most  tables  contain  an  item  "dry  mat- 
ter," which,  in  common  with  other 
items,  is  an  indication  of  the  bulki- 
ness  of  the  feed. 

While  carbohydrates  and  fat  per- 
form practically  the  same  function  as 
a  feed,  yet  their  relative  value  for  this 
purpose  is  not  the  same;  and  in  consid- 
ering the  two  together  under  the  same 
head,  it  is  necessary  to  make  an  allow- 
ance to  bring  ttiem  to  the  same  unit. 
It  has  been  found  by  experiment  that 
the  value  of  fat  is  about  2\  times  the 
value  of  carbohydrates.  Hence,  in  the 
tables  the  actual  percentage  of  fat  has 
been  multiplied  by  2J  and  added  to  the 
carbohydrates.  The  ratio  between  this 
combination  and  the  protein  is  known 
as  the  "nutritive  ratio." 

The  following  table  gives  the  average 
percentage  composition,  and  the  nutri- 
tive ratio,  and  relative  feed  value  of 
some  of  the  most  common  feeding 
stuffs: 


492 


APPENDIX. 


TABLE  XIX. 
SHOWING  COMPOSITION  OF  SOME  COMMON  FEEDING  STUFFS. 


a 

"jig 

%  V 
>  v 

*!  3 

u 
a 

"  c 

Ph 

Per  Cent.  Digestible. 

6 

FEED. 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drate and 
Equiv.  Fat 

> 

SiH 
55 

%  24.16 
21.88 
21.20 
15.24 
17.72 
12.84 
22.72 
14.12 
10.10 
9.96 

92 
90 
86 
92 
89 
85 
89 
87 
60 
90 

37 
29 
19 
10 
9 
6 
8 
3 

% 

44 
45 
54 
43 
53 
39 

47 
34 
35 

1" 

1.6 

2.8 

4.3 

Oats 

5.9 
6.5 

9.0 

15.7 

17.0 

70.0 

This  table  is  not  to  be  taken  as  abso- 
lutely correct  for  any  particular  local- 
ity. It  is  compiled  from  a  large  num- 
ber of  sources,  and  represents  a  fair 
average  of  the  well  authenticated  re- 
ports made  by  the  several  State  ex- 
periment stations. 

The  column  headed  "relative  feed 
value  per  ton,"  has  been  computed 
from  average  values  determined  at  dif- 
ferent times  by  me  Connecticut  sta- 
tion, and  is  1.60  cents  per  pound  for 
protein,  and  1.40  cents  per  pound  for 
carbohydrates.  This  valuation  must  be 
taken  only  as  an  approximation,  and 
only  as  of  relative  importance.  The 
stations  all  differ  on  this  point. 

The  feeding  stuffs  have  been  ar- 
ranged in  the  table  with  reference  to 
the  "nutritive  ratio."  Cotton  seed  meal 
is  seen  to  possess  the  lowest  or  "nar- 
rowest"  ratio,  while  cotton  seed  hulls 


possess  the  "widest"  ratio.  This  means 
that  cotton  seed  meal  contains  more 
and  hulls  less  protein  in  proportion  to 
other  ingredients  than  anything  else  in 
the  table.  Hence  in  mixing  a  proper 
ration,  the  two  extremes  form  a  logical 
combination. 

The  Germans  have  made  great  study 
of  the  science  of  feeding,  and  they 
have  developed  what  is  called  "feeding 
standards."  By  this  is  meant  the 
pr-cper  nutritive  ratios  to  feed  to  vari- 
ous animals  to  produce  certain  results. 
It  is  sometimes  tabulated  in  a  way  to 
show  the  number  of  pounds  of  each, 
nutritive  ingredient  that  should  be  sup- 
plied for  each  1,000  pounds  of  live 
weight. 

The  following  table  gives  an  idea  of 
feeding  standards  considered  about 
right  for  various  purposes: 


APPENDIX. 


493 


TABLE  XX. 
SHOWING  FEEDING  STANDARDS  FOR  CERTAIN  PURPOSES. 


ANIMAL. 

Digestible  Nutrients  :  Pounds 

per  Day,  per  1,0>0  lbs. 

live  weight. 

Nutritive 

Protein. 

Carbohydrate  and 
Equiv.  Fat. 

Ratio. 

lto 

3.2 
2.8 
25 
2.5 

16.0 
15.0 
16.3 
14.3 

"        6  to  12  months  old 

5.4 
6.5 

The  use  of  this  table,  together  with 
Table  XIX.,  may  be  illustrated  by  cal- 
calculating  a  ration  for  a  fattening 
steer  weighing  1,000  pounds.  Table 
XX.  requires  2.5  pounds  protein.  Table 
XIX.  shows  cotton  seed  meal  contains 
37  per  cent  protein,  hence  there  will  be 
required  (2.5  divided  by  .37)  6.8  pounds 
of  meal.  The  table  calls  for  16.3  pounds 
of  carbohydrates.  The  meal  contains 
(6.8  multiplied  by  .44)  3.  pounds,  hence 
13.3  pounds  may  be  supplied  by  hulls 
(13.3  divided  by  .35)  38  pounds  and  a 
good  ration  would  be  say  7  pounds 
meal  and  38  pounds  hulls.  On  this 
ration,  the  steer  ought  to  gain  about 
3  pounds  weight  per  day. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  table  that  a 
milk  cow  requires  very  nearly  the  same 
ration  as  the  fattening  steer.  With  this 
feed  she  ought  to  give  about  22  pounds 
of  milk  per  day. 

But  the  disposition  of  the  fertilizing 
values  that  are  in  the  feeds  are  difffer- 
ent  in  the  two  cases.  In  the  case  of 
the  fattening  steer,  very  little  of  the 
nitrogen  (in  the  protein  fed)  is  re- 
tained. About  95  per  cent,  of  it  is 
voided,  (22  in  the  solid  and  73  in  the 
liquid  excrement).  There  is  no  nitro- 
gen or  protein  in  the  •composition  of 
fat  meat.  On  the  other  hand,  the  cow 
uses  about  25  per  cent,   of  the  actual 


digestible  protein  that  is  fed.  Milk  is 
rich  in  protein.  Protein  contains  all  the 
nitrogen  in  the  feed,  and  hence  the 
manure  from  fattening  steers  is  more 
valuable  than  from  milk  cows. 


GENERAL  NOTES  ON  CATTLE  AND 
FEEDING. 

LENGTH  OP  FATTENING  PERIOD. 

The  Kansas  experiment  station 
found  that  in  fattening  steers  on  grain, 
the  cost  per  pound  for  fattening  in- 
creased after  two  months. 

Actual  practice  in  feeding  cotton 
seed  meal  and  hulls,  throughout  the 
South  shows  that  it  is  not  generally 
profitable  to  feed  steers  for  fattening 
longer  than  three  months. 

AGE  OF  STEERS  FOR  FATTENING. 
All  stations  agree  that  the  younger 
the  steer,  the  more  rapid  the  increase 
of  weight,  and  the  less  cost  per  pound 
for  fattening. 

AMOUNT  OF  FEED  PER  100 
POUNDS  GAIN  IN  WEIGHT. 
The  average  amount  of  a  balanced 
ration  required  under  normal  condi- 
tions to  produce  a  gain  of  100  pounds 
in  live  weight,  during  the  fattening- 
period  is  about  1,500  pounds. 


494 


APPENDIX. 


CHANGE    OF    DIET. 

Milk  cows  relish  changes  of  diet,  and 
they  prosper  on  it,  when  not  too  radi- 
cal. But  steers  while  being  fattened 
will  be  content  with  the  same  diet 
throughout  the  period.  Any  radical 
change  is  sure  to  be  detrimental.  The 
Ohio  station  experimented  on  chang- 
ing steers  from  pasturage  to  stall  feed- 
ing, and  vice  versa.  The  change  al- 
ways reduced  the  rate  of  per  diem  in- 
crease. 

PROPORTION       OF       HULLS       AND 

MEAL. 

The  Texas  station  claims  that  the 
proportion  of  hulls  and  meal  for  fat- 
tening steers  should  be  adjusted  on  the 
basis  of  the  costs  of  these  feeds,  and 
that  the  cost  of  the  hulls  in  a  ration 
should  be  the  same  as  the  cost  of  the 
meal.  For  example,  if  meal  is  $20  per 
ton  and  hulls  $4  per  ton,  then  the  eco- 
nomical ration  should  be  in  the  pro- 
portion of  twenty  pounds  of  hulls  to 
four  pounds  of  meal,  or  five  to  one. 

These  methods  of  determining  the 
ration  seem  arbitrary  and  artificial, 
and  should  not  be  too  implicitly  fol- 
lowed. 

Experience  shows  that  the  best  re- 
sults come  from  beginning  with  a 
wide  nutritive  ratio,  say  one  pound  of 
meal  to  six  or  seven  pounds  of  hulls, 
and  gradually  narrowing  this  ratio  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  feeding  period  to 
four  pounds  of  hulls  to  one  pound  of 
meal. 

FEEDING  UNDER  SHELTER  OR  IN 
OPEN  YARDS. 

The  Kansas  station  made  a  number 
of  experiments  to  determine  the  dif- 
ference between  feeding  cattle  con- 
fined under  shelter  and  feeding  them 
when  given  liberty  in  the  yard. 

Their    results    were    somewhat    neg- 


ative, for  they  could  determine  no 
difference  in  rate  of  gain  under  the  two 
conditions;  but  they  discovered  that 
the  cattle  which  were  allowed  liberty 
would  consume  about  12  per  cent,  more 
feed  than  those,  in  the  stalls. 

These  results  should  not  be  accepted 
as  conclusive  under  all  conditions.  It 
depends  upon  the  character  of  the  ani- 
mals themselves,  and  upon  the  char- 
acter of  the  ground  on  which  they  are 
allowed  to  run.  If  the  animals  are 
wild  and  unruly,  and  are  allowed  per- 
fect liberty  of  action,  there  will  be 
much  fighting  and  consequent  dam- 
age and  loss  of  flesh.  If  the  ground  is 
soft  and  not  properly  drained,  the  ani- 
mals will  bog  up  and  lose  considerable 
flesh,  on  account  of  the  extra  exertion 
in  running  over  such  ground.  Unruly 
animals  should  always  be  confined  in 
stalls.  Tamer  animals  might  be  al- 
lowed some  liberty,  but  should  always 
be  provided  with  shelter  which  th-5y 
can  reach  when  they  desire. 

There  are  some  successful  feeders  in 
the  Southeastern  States,  who  make  an 
open  pen  on  a  dry  hillside,  and  in  this 
pen  have  a  large,  cheap  barn,  entirely 
open  at  the  bottom,  so  that  the  cattle 
may  come  and  go  to  the  feed  troughs 
which  are  in  this  building.  The  upper 
story  of  the  building  is  used  for  the 
storage  of  feed. 

In  any  and  all  cases,  more  care 
should  be  given  to  the  saving  of  the 
manures.  The  open  yard  should  be 
kept  continually  strewn  with  cut  straw, 
dry  leaves  or  any  other  absorptive  veg- 
etable matter.  This  will  absorb  the 
urine  and  will  be  trampled  down,  and 
will  help  conserve  all  the  fertilizing 
elements.  The  money  and  care  ex- 
pended on  operating  this  kind  of  a  fer- 
tilizer factory  will  bring  better  returns 
than  any  other  department  of  farm  in- 
dustry. 


D. 

North  Cc 


State  College 


INDEX. 


A 

ACCUMULATOR 318,  321 

Acid     Phosphate 415 

Age  for  Fattening  Steers 493 

Air  Blast  for  Handling  Seed 89 

Agricultural    Legislation 196 

Alabama     Dairying 4S6 

Alexander,    E.    P 210 

Amusements  on  Plantation 62 

Appendix 441 

Attrition    Mills 33:) 

Automatic  Change  Valve 325,  329 

B 

BALING  Cotton 36,  40,   89-115 

Improvements 71,  98 

Bald  Headed  Seed 9 

Barrels   for  Oil 236,  360 

Battery  of   Gins 89 

Baume    Hydrometer 353,  434 

Bedding    Cotton 139 

Beef    Cattle 372 

Bleaching    Oil 358 

Bloom   of   Cotton 117,121 

Boll    of    Cotton 120-123 

Boll    Worm 171 

Bolting    Chest 341 

Boxes  for  Conveyor 244 

Bradford,    Wm 12 

Breaking   Up    Lands 139 

Breeds  Beef  Cattle 284,  385 

Milk    Cattle 388,  391 

Butter    Cattle 393 

Brewei* 11 

Bull,    Jesse 26 


Bulletin,    Alabama 486 

Burden,    Mrs 2 

Burglary,    Whitney's    Shop 24 

Butter    Cow 393 

Butter    Making 4S6 

c 

CAKE    Cracker 336,  337 

Capacity  Oil  Mill  Machinery 343 

Care  of  Cotton  Seed 206 

Carpet-Bag  Government 191 

Cartwright 1 

Cattle  Feeding 371-403,   490,  493 

Fever 403 

Manure 397,  417 

Quarantine 403 

Shed 373-377 

Caustic    Soda 350 

Certification  of  Papers 

By  James   Madison 15 

Whitney    Patent 23 

Bill    of    Injunction 25 

Holmes    Patent 27 

Chain   Elevator 247 

Change  Valve  on  Press 323-331 

Change   of   Diet 494 

Chemical    Analysis    of    Oil 345 

Of    Cotton    Plant 407 

Of    Fertilizers 414 

Of   Sulphuric   Acid 434 

Choke  Valve  on  Press 326 

Chronology   of   Cotton 6 

Classification  and  Spin.  Qual.   Cot- 
ton  176-181 

Classification   of   Oil 350 


INDEX. 


Cleaning-   Cotton    Seed 248 

Commercial  Value  of  Fertilizer 420 

Commission     Firms 183 

Compress 99 

Comptroller's    Statement    N.    C.    484-485 
Composition  of 

Feeding-    Stuffs 492 

Fertilizer 413-414 

Soils 406 

Cotton    Seed 204,  214 

Sulphuric    Acid 434 

Continuous  Action  Gin 31,     76 

Conveyors  for  Seed 243-246 

Condenser  for  Gin 66,  76,     S9 

Corn    Shucking 61 

Cost  of 

Oil    Mills 234 

Acid    Chambers 436 

Fertilizer  Factories 439 

Fertilizers 439 

Operating  Oil  Mills 217-221 

Operating  Acid  Chamber 435 

Operating   Fert.    Factories 439 

Picking    Cotton 162 

Cotton. 

Baling 92-115 

Blooms 117 

Compress 94,     99 

Confiscation 183 

Crops 5 

Field    157 

Gin   (See  Gin). 

Harvesting 162,  165 

Market '173 

Mills 192 

Option 439 

Planting    146-150 

Planting    Syndicate 189 

Planting   Machine 135,  149 

Picking    161 

Picking     Machine 165-169 


Production    per    Acre 201 

Sampler's     Table 179 

Season 85 

Stalk    Cutter 157 

Square 117 

Values 193 

Varieties 116 

Yield 125 

Cotton-Seed 201-208 

Hulls 222 

Huller 261-271 

Linter 254-257 

Markets 205 

Meal    210,  372 

Machinery 243 

Mills 193-195 

Oil 199 

D 

DAIRY    Cattle ,....   3S4 

Dairying  and  Breeding 486 

Decree    for   Injunction 470 

I  >eh<  lining    Cattle 376 

Delinting    Machinery 225 

Depositions  in  Gin  Suits 21 

Diet  for  Cattle 494 

Disc   Cultivator 155,  161 

Disposition  of  Cotton  Seed  Products 

228,  335 

Documents. 

I.  List   of   Gin   Suits 443 

II.  Whitney's  Original  Patent..   444 

III.  Whitney's  Substituted  Pat.  444 

IV.  Letter  About  Pat.  Office  Fire  463 

V.  Bill    of   Injunction 463 

VI.  Holmes'  Saw  Gin  Patent....   471 

VII.  Phineas  Miller's  Letter....  473 

VIII.  Whitney's  Letter  to  Steb- 
bins.. .'. 474 

IX.  Abstract  S.  C.  Records 475 

■X.    Message    from    Gov.    of    Ga.  478 


INDEX. 


XI.  Whitney's  Reply  to  Gov.  of 
Georgia 479 

XII.  N.  C.  Law  Taxing  Gins....   4S3 

XIII.  List    of    Taxes    Collected, 

N.    C 484-4S5 

Domestic   Habits  on   Plantation....     54 

Market  for  Hulls  and  Maal 401 

Draft  on   Soil  by  Cotton 126 

Dried    Blood 425 

Dubrueil    2 

Dueling  in  the  South 50 

Dust  Room  in  Gin  House 93 

Dyampert,    John    C 22 

E 

EARLY  Steam  Ginnery 45 

Fertilizers 405 

Education    of    Negro 49 

Textile 194 

Elevators  for  Seed  Cotton 82 

For  Cotton  Seed 246 

Equipment  of 

Plantation 53 

Cotton  Pickers 162 

Oil    Refinery 365 

Eve,  Dr.  Joseph 2 

Extent  of  Plantations 53 

Experimental    Cotton    Picking    Ma- 
chine   167,  169 

Export    of    Cotton    Seed    Products, 
23S,  402 

F 

FATTENING  Cattle 371 

Period 493 

Fatty    Acids 346 

Feeding— Cattle 371,  494 

Under    Shelter 494 

In  Open  Pens 381,  494 

Stuffs 492 

Theory 490 


Standards 493 

General  Notes 493 

Feed  per  100  lbs.  gain 493 

Feeder  for  Cotton  Gin 66 

Fertilizers 125,  405 

Fertilizer    Manufacture 414 

Distributors    130,  141 

Mixer 422,  423 

Factory    437 

Filter  Press 336,  355,  361 

Filtering  Oil 336 

Fire  in  Patent  Office 463 

Fire    Protection 93.  207 

First  Cotton  Seed  Oil  Mills 210,  213 

Former  for  Cake 300 

Forsythe   11 

Fort,   Arthur 20,  463 

Gang  Plow    151,  161 

Q 

GIN 

-Cut  Cotton SI 

House 32,    33,    83,    S6,    93 

Driven   from   Below SO 

Monopoly    Message 47S 

Roller 2,   10,  72,   73.  178 

Saw 2,  3,  9.  31,  71.  SO,  444,  471 

Patents 9,   444,  471 

Invention    9 

Ginnery — Compress    98-115 

Glue  for  Barrels 363 

Goodrich,    Elizur 12,    20,460 

Governor  of  Georgia 47S 

Greene,  Mrs  Nat 11 

Grinding  C.   S.  Meal 341 

Grading  Oils 359- 

H 

HABIT  of  Cotton  Plant 120;  201 

Hargreaves.    James l 

Harrow    145 


INDEX. 


Handling  Cotton 36,  39,  41 

Heating  of  Cotton  Seed 207 

Heaters  for  Oil  Mills 284-301 

Height  of  Cotton  Plant 201 

Holmes.    Hodgen 2,    20-22,    30,  471 

Hoeing    Cotton 156 

Huller 

Gin 77 

Feeder 273 

Knives     , 263 

Hulls 

For    Feed 494 

For    Fuel 222 

Hybridizing    Cotton    119 

Hydraulic 

Packing 311,    313 

Power    Pump 333 

Press 309,   312,   313 

Steam    Pump 314,  319 

Valves    323-329 

IMMIGRATION 185,    196 

Improved  Ginnery 69,  82 

Condition   of   Farmers 185 

Implements   158-161 

Insurance  Rates 93 

Intermittent  Gin 30,   76 

Introduction    1 

Invention  of  Saw   Gin 9,  441 

Industrial    Renaissance 192 

Insect  Enemies  of  Cotton 166-176 

Injunction    in    Gin    Suits 463 

Infringement  Suits 16,  443 

J 

JACKSON,    Governor  of   Ga 478 

Jefferson,    Thomas ; 12 


K 


KAINIT    416,    425 

Kineaid,    Jas 320 

Knife     Grinder 270 

Ku-Klux-Klan 63.  191 

L 

LABOR  to  Operate  Gin 40,     44 

System  on  Plantation 52 

Saving  on  Plantation 65 

Late     Cotton 181 

Large  Oil  Mills 231 

Laying   Off   Cotton   Rows 140 

Laying    By    Crops 156-158 

Laws  of  N.  C.  on  Gins 4S3 

Lee,  Charles 20 

Leguminous   Crops 400 

Letter,    Miller   to   Whitney 473 

Whitney   to   Stebbins 474 

Whitney  to  Gov.  Jackson 479 

Pat.    Com.    to    Tompkins 463 

Lien  Law 184 

Lint  Cotton 120,  204 

Linting   Cotton   Seed 225,254 

Linter    Room 259 

List    of    Gin    Suits 443 

Local   Consumption  of  Cotton 176 

Log    Rolling 61 

Lyons,    Nathan 26 


M 


MACHINERY 

In   Oil   Mill 213,   215,  237 

MacCarthy    Roger 22 

Madison,     James 12,     15 

Manufacturing 

Fertilizers    414 

Acid    Phosphate 436 


INDEX. 


Sulphuric    Acid 

429 

Oil 

209 

Marketing  Cotton 

. ...  182 

-1S6 

Cotton  Oil  Products 

.  ..228, 

335 

ftin 

Management  of  Oil  Mill 

221 

Manure  from  Cattle 

375 

Master  and  Slave 

50 

Meal    Mill 

...336, 

339 

Message  of  Gov.  of  Ga 

478 

Mexican    Boll    Worm 

172 

Miller,    Phineas 

20,    26, 

473 

Milling  Process  for  Oil 

248 

Miners'    Oil 

359 

Mixing,    Fertilizers 

...416, 

421 

Modern    (jinnery 

68 

93 

95 

Oil    Mill 

5W1 

Modification    of    Gins 

79 

Mold  for  Hydraulic  Packing 

315 

N 

NEGRO 

As   a    Slave 47 

As  a  Freeman 65 

Suffrage    188 

New  Orleans  Oil  Mill 210 

Nitrogen 411,  425 

Nitrate     Soda 416,  425 

North   Car.    Purchase   Gin   Pat.,  483-485 

Notes   on    Cattle    Feeding 493 

Number  of  Saws  in  a  Gin 79 


O 


L0  I 


OBJECTION  to  Round  Bales. ...  lor, 

Occupation    on    Plantation 58 

Oil   Mills 195,   211,   215,   223,  229 

Press 309,   312,   313 

Refining    345 

Old  Plantation  Gin  House 33.  91 

Horse    Power 37 


Olmstead,   Prof 22 

Olive    Tree 209 

Olein   349,  359 

Opens  Pens  for  Cattle. 376,  494 

Overseer  on  Plantation '. . .     58 

P 

PATENT    Office 

Fire 14,    463 

Drawings     17-19 

Paris    Green    for    Insects 171 

Paraffine  for   Barrels 363 

Pendleton   11 

Petition   for   Injunction 20,463 

Period   for  Fattening 493 

Peruvian  Guano 405 

Phosphoric  Acid   405,  421 

Phenolphthalein     346 

Pioneer  Oil  Mills 210 

Pickering,  Timothy  20 

Picking    Cotton 161 

Plant    Food 139 

Planting    Cotton 146-150 

Plantation  Home 57,     65 

During     War 63 

Tools    67 

Plows 126,  147 

Plowing    Cotton 154-156 

Pneumatic  Accumulator 318 

Cotton  Elevator 82-87 

Political    Revolution 68 

Portable    Ginnery 59 

Potash    425 

Powell,  John 20,  461 

Power,    Horse 35^  37,   44,     65 

Press 

Baling 66,   71,   90-115 

Square   Bale 94 

Round    Bale 102-115 

For  Linters  in  Oil  Mill 40 

For   Oil 302,   309,   312,   313 


INDEX. 


Cloth 332 

Preparation    of    Barrels 3G3 

Land 136 

Cotton  for  Market 32 

Production  of  Refinery 364 

Production  and  Price  of  Cotton 5 

Products  of  Cotton   Seed 205 

Of  Cotton  Plant 209 

Profits  of  Plantation 52 

Of   Cotton   Culture 196 

Of  Cattle  Raisins- 379 

Profitable 

Size    of    Oil    Mills 22S-233 

Yield   from    Dairy 3SS 

Proportion  of  Hulls  and  Meal 494 

Public     Ginnery 67 

Pump  and  Press  Connection 331 

Purchase  of  Gin  Patents 475,  483 

Pyrites    429 

0 

QUALITY   of   Cotton    Seed 207 

Of    Oil 207 

Quantity  of  Oil  in  Seed 207 

Quarantine    Regulations   for   Cattle  403 

R 

RANDOLPH,   Edmund 12,   445,   462 

Range  of  Locality  for  Cotton 119 

Raw  Material  for  Fertilizers 425 

Receiving  Seed  at  Mill 248 

Refining-  Cotton   Oil 345 

Replanting   Cotton 152-154 

Restoration    of    Lands 192 

Of   Political    Order 192 

Revolving    Box    Press 93 

Riding    Cultivator 153,  155 

Right  Angle  Conveyor  Drive 245 

Right  or  Left   Hand   Gin 79 

Roller   Gin 2,    10,    72,.   17S 

Rolls    for    Oil    Mill 276 


Rotation    of    Crops 409 

Round  Bales 102-115 

Royalty   on   Gins 28,   475,   4S3-486 


SAW    ('.in 2,    3,    9-31,    71-80 

Sampling   Cotton 1S2 

Oil 350 

Sand  and   Boll  Screen 249-253 

Scooter     Plow 131 


Screening  C.  S.  Meal. 

Screw  Press 

Seabrook,    W.    B 

Sea   Island   Cotton... 
Sectional  Rib  Gin.... 

Seed    Cotton 

Seed    for    Planting... 
Seed  Magnified 


...  341 
.32,  40 
, . . .  20 
..9,  204 
.  ...  79 
....  120 
.149-150 
. .  . .   203 


Selection    of    Seed 178 

Separating    Screen 272 

Conveyor    275 

Sheep  Raising 398 

Shelter    for    Cattle 494 

Shipment    of    Oil 360 

Shovel    Plow 131 

Silicate  of  Soda 360 

Size  and  Shape  of  Bales 89 

Slave     Labor 32,     47 

Slave    Loyalty 188 

Slave     Quarters 57 

Small    Oil    Mills 231 

Soap    Stock 357 

Soil   for   Cotton 12r. 

Soil    requirements 410 

Solubility  of  Fertilizers 415 

South  Carolina  Gin  Rights 475 

Spectacular  Cattle   Fattening- 371 

Speed   of   Oil   Mill    Machinery 343 

Spinning  Jenny 1 

Spinning   Wheel 55 

Spinning  Quality  of   Cot  on 176 


Splenetic    Fever 403 

Square  Bale  Ginnery  Compress 98 

Square  of  Cotton 117.  120 

Stalk    ('utter 157,  161 

Standards    for    Feeding 493 

Stearin 349,  359 

Steam  Cake  Former 303 

Steam   Ginnery 

43,    45,    59,    69,    82,    83,    86,    87,  93 

Steam    Coils   in   Tanks 236 

Storage  of  Seed  Cotton S5 

Of  Cotton  Seed L06,  226-228 

Stebbins,    Jos 20,  21 

Substituted  Patent 444 

Sub-Soiling-   Plow 135,  147 

Suction   Fan   Gin 85 

Suits    for   Infringement 443 

Sulphuric    Acid 358,  431 

Sulphate  of  Ammonia 412,  425 

Sulky  Plow 153  1 

Summary  of  Gin  Evidence 28 

Sweep,  Plow 131,  133,  154 

System    of    Agriculture 51 

Sylvanit  425 

T 

TABLES 

I.  Production  and  Price  of  Cot- 
ton           5 

II.  Chronology  of  Cotton G 

ITT.      Estimated     Value     Cotton 

Picking   Machine 166 

IV.  Distribution  Profits   in   Cot- 
ton   Manufacturing 194 

V.  Value  of   N.    C.    Cotton   Crop 

if  Manufactured 195 

VI.  Product  from  1  ton  Seed  in 
Early    Oil    Mills 217 

VII.  Product  from  1  Ton  Seed  in 
Present    Oil    Mills 21S 

VIII.  Product   from   1   Ton   Seed 

in   Present   Oil   Mills 219 


IX.  Product  from  1  Ton  Seed   in 
Present    Oil    Mills 220 

X.  Product  from  1  Ton  Seed  in 
Present    Oil    Mills 221 

XI.  Value  of  Seed  from  Ten  Mil- 
lion   Bales  Cotton 224 

XII.  Cost  of  Oil  Mills 234 

XIII.  Seed   Crushed   and   Value 

of   Products 242 

XIV.  Speed     and     Capacity    of 
Conveyor   for   Seed 246 

XV.  Speed  and  Capacity  of  Oil 
Mill    Machinery 343 

XVI.  Chem.     Analysis     Cotton 
Plant    ..■ 407 

XVII.  Quantity   Fertilizer   Nec- 
essary      409 

XVIII.  Commerc'l  Sources  Fert. 
Chemicals     413 

XIX.  Composition    of    Feeding 
Stuffs    492 

XX.  Feeding  Standards 493 

Tankage    425 

Tank  Cars 236 

Tanks  for  Oil  Mills £35 

Tatternall,    Gov 2 

Tax  on  Gins 484-485 

Tenant  System 67,  186,  191 

Texas  Fever 403 

Ginnery     87 

Oak  Cotton 119 

Theory  of  Cattle  Feeding 490 

Thermomoter    for    Heaters 287 

Thinning  Out  Cotton.^ 149 

Transportation  and  Uses  of 

Cotton   Seed   Oil 235 

Cotton    Seed    Meal 239 

Cotton   Seed  Hulls 241 

Fertilizers    415 

Treatment  of  Whitney  in  the  South    24 

Triple    Heater 297-301 

Turn    Plow 133,  147 

Types  of  Slaves 48 


INDEX. 


Good  Beef  Steer 3S5 

Scrub  Beef  Steer 3S9 

Good   Milk  Cow : 391 

Good  Butter  Cow 393 

Scrub   Milk   Cow 395 

U 

UNIFORM  Length  of  Staple 177 

Union    League 191 

Unreliability    of    Negro 191 

Upland    Cotton 9,  204 


VALUATION  of  Products  of  Plan- 


tion    

Value  in 

Cotton    Seed. 


195 


Oil  Mill  Products 232 

Hulls  and  Meal 372 


w 


WASHINGTON,  George 

12,    20,    445,    462,  472 

Washing    Oil 356 

Walking    Cultivator 151,  161 

Weight  of  Cotton  Seed 202 

Wet  Cotton  Seed 207 

Cotton    81 

Mix    Fertilizer 438 

White     Supremacy 64 

Whitney,  Eli,  2,  11,  13,  17,  19,  21,  24, 

29,  429,  444,  474 

Winter    Oil 359 

Wooden  Screw  Press 90 

Work  Required  on  Cotton 158 


TTFLD  of  Cotton  Plant 125 

Oil  from   Seed 214-221 


BY  THE  SAME  AUTHOR. 

Cotton  Mill  Processes  and  aiculfc. 

312  Pages.     52  Original  Illustrations. 

PRICE^    S5.00. 

This  is  a  book  for  the  Mill  Superintendent,  the  Overseer,  and  tha 
Student  who  wants  to  learn  the  details  of  the  business  of  running  a 
cotton  mill.  It  is  written  in  simple  style,  and  without  the  use  of  algebra. 
Anyone  who  understands  the  simple  rules  of  arithmetic,  may  easily  master 
it.     It  is  profusely  illustrated  with  original  drawings. 


IRotices  of  tbe  press- 

Cotton  Mill  Processes  and  Calculations  is  in  every  re-pect  a  ^^^ 
*  *  No  man  is  better  qualified  to  utilize  experience  and  profit  by  1  fs  lessons 
than  Mr  Tompkins.  *  *  From  our  acquaintance  with  his  remarkable  faculty 
or*  making fa  difficult  subject  seem  clear  and  simple  we  feel  safe  in  predicting 
that  his  book  will  find  ready  sale.— Norfolk  Landmark. 

Destined  to  make  its  impress,  and  that  for  good  and  usefulness,  upon  the 
young  men  of  the  South  especially.— Raleigh  Post. 

One  of  the  best  books  ever  published  in  the  South.  *  *  A .Perf«ct  elemen- 
tary text-book.  *  *  This  book  may  be  said  to  mark  a  milepost  in  the  indu^ti  lal 
history  of  North  Carolina.— Raleigh  News  and  Observer. 

A  book  of  inestimable  value  to  any  and  every  one  engaged  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  cotton  *  *  Mr.  Tompkins  has  rendered  an  invaluable  service  to  the 
cotton  manufacturing  industry.     *     *     —Wilmington  Star. 

Nothing  more  timely  in  character  has  appeared  in  years,  and  beneficent  prac- 
tical results&  cannot  fail  to  accrue  therefrom.  *  *  While  this  splendid  work  is 
designed  chiefly  to  meet  the  demands  of  textile  schools,  it  may  also  prove  of 
Si  It  service  to  every  one  interested,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  in  the 
SamXture  of  cotton.  •*•  Mr.  Tompkins  writes  not  ^fJ^J^SSl 
impulse  of  one  who  merely  wants  to  make  money.  *  *  -Atlanta  Constitution 
Mr.  Tompkins  understands  cotton  manufacture,  and  his  book  will  meet  a 
demand  tha/has  long  been  felt  in  the  South.  *  *  It  embodies  the  results  of 
both  scientific  study  and  practical  experience.-^//™/'*  Journal. 

Mr  Tompkins  treats  cotton  manufacturing  from  a  new  standpoint,  i.  e., 
letting  dayUght  through  the  whole  subject.  He  has  evidently  gone  to  great 
expense  *  *  An  invaluable  work  for  the  young  man  learning  the  mill  business, 
as  well  as  a  comprehensive  guide  to  the  overseer  and  superintendent.- Textile 
Excelsior. 

Order  from  D.  A.  TOMPKINS,  Charlotte,  N.  C. 


BY   THE  SAME   AUTHOR, 


Cotton  Mill  Commercidl  features. 

240  Pages.     70  Original  Illustrations. 


PRICE,    S5.00. 


This  is  a  book  for  the  prospective  investor.  It  discusses  in  detail  all 
the  points  that  are  raised  in  organizing  a  new  mill.  It  shows  the  cost  of 
mills  of  various  kinds.  It  elaborates  the  plans  for  organizing  companies 
and  for  raising  capital. 

It  shows  how  to  keep  mill  accounts  and  reports.  It  shows  cost  of 
production  for  all  the  common  kinds  of  goods  manufactured  in  the  South. 
It  shows  how  goods  are  sold  by  the  mills.  It  gives  advice  about  location 
and  surroundings.  It  discusses  textile  education,  and  shows  how  a  young 
man  should  proceed  to  learn  the  cotton  mill  business.  It  is  profusely 
illustrated  with  original  drawings  and  fine  half-tones  made  expressly  for 
this  work. 

This  book  was  written  as  an  answer  to  large  numbers  of  letters,  enquir- 
ing about  the  steps  necessary  to  organize  and  build  a  new  mill.  There  are 
so  many  factors  which  enter  into  a  conscientious  answer  to  the  question  that 

nothing  short  of  a  book  could  give  a  comprehensive  answer.     "Cotton  Mill 
Commercial  Features"  gives  the  answer  in  every  detail. 


Order  from   D.  A.  TOMPKINS,  Charlotte,  N.  C. 


BY  THE  SAME  AUTHOR. 


AMERICAN  COMMERCE: 


ITS  EXPANSION. 

154  Pages. 


PRICE,  $1.00. 


I  HIS  is  a  collection  of  addresses  and  pamphlets  relating  to  the  extension 
^  of  foreign  markets  for  American  manufactures.  The  cotton  factories 
of  the  United  States,  and,  indeed,  most  other  industries  which  have  reached 
an  advanced  stage  of  growth,  are  now  manufacturing  more  goods  than  can 
possibly  be  consumed  in  our  home  markets.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary  for 
the  maintenance  of  our  present  position  that  we  reach  out  for  the  markets 
of  the  world.  How  much  more  necessary  is  it,  when  we  are  continually 
building  factories! 

The  nations  of  the  world  either  progress  or  go  backward.     If  we  are 
to  progress,  we  must  learn  to  cater  to  foreign  markets. 

The  book  is  a  discussion  of  the  ways  and  means  for  accomplishing 
these  ends.     All  manufacturers  should  be  interested  in  it. 

Order  from  D.  A.  TOMPKINS,  Charlotte,  N.  C. 


BY  THE  SAME  AUTHOR. 


PRICE3  S2.50. 


N^^^V^N^^^^Nrf'^/ 


THIS  is  a  collection  of  actual  samples  of  cloth,  with  descriptive  matter 
and  data,  showing  cost  per  yard  and  per  pound.  These  costs  are  then 
tabulated  in  a  way  to  show  what  the  average  cotton  crop  of  the  State  of 
North  Carolina  would  bring  if  manufactured  into  the  various  kinds  of 
goods  shown. 

When  this  crop  of  500,000  bales  was  sold  as  raw  cotton,  at  an  average 
value  of  6  cents  per  pound,  the  total  income  to  the  people  of  the  State  from 
this  source  was  $15,000,000. 

But  now  that  a  large  part  of  this  crop  is  being  turned  into  various 
manufactured  products,  it  is  a  matter  of  interest  to  speculate  on  the  real 
possibilities  of  the  case. 

The  cheapest  sample  shown  in  this  collection  is  common  heavy  Duck,, 
which  sells  for  14  cents  per  pound.  If  the  whole  500,000-bale  crop  were 
manufactured  into  this  goods  and  sold  at  that  price,  the  income  would  be 
$35,000,000  instead  of  $15,000,000. 

Other  samples  and  figures  show  that  there  is  an  easy  possibility  of  five 
billion  dollars  in  a  half  million  bale  crop,  if  sufficient  skill  and  industry 
are  brought  to  bear  on  the  subject. 

This  book  does  not  enter  into  methods  of  developing  the  skill  and 
industry,  but  merely  points  out  what  immense  resources  are  latent  in  cot- 
ton. 

Other  books  by  this  author  show  how  the  work  may  be  accomplished- 
Order  from  D.  A.  TOMPKINS,  Charlotte,  N.  C. 


,tt/^^///V* 

m\(u^VH? 

